* National Pollutant Inventory - Beryllium and compounds fact sheet

* National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet

Beryllium is not a metal that is often encountered everyday. Although more abundant in the earth's crust than silver, it is more expensive and difficult to produce. The metal itself is very rarely seen, a grey metal formed mainly by powder metallurgy when used as a metal, but more commonly appears as a minor constituent in alloys. Its name comes from the common mineral beryl, which as emerald and aquamarine is an important gemstone, and its chemical symbol is Be. It is also called glucinium, symbol Gl. Glycium and glycinium have been variant spellings.

The oxide was first identified as containing a new element by Haüy (of crystal fame) and Vauquelin in 1797 or 1798 by decomposing beryl. The metal itself was isolated independently by Wöhler and Bussy in 1818, through the reduction of BeCl2 by potassium metal. It was merely a laboratory curiosity until the excellent properties of its alloys with copper were recognized in the 1930's. It was considered a strategic material in World War II because of these alloys.

Mineralogy

Beryllium is a constituent of about 30 identified minerals, but most are rare. The most common beryllium mineral by far is beryl, 3BeO·Al2O3·6SiO2. This is a hard (Mohs 7.5-8.0), relatively light (spgr 2.75-2.80) found in granitic rocks, pegmatites, mica schists and similar environments, occasionally in huge crystals. One crystal was 9 m in length, and weighed 25 tons. Beryl is typically full of inclusions, milky but translucent, and of a greenish color. Clear crystals, which are much smaller but can still be of considerable size, are valuable gemstones. Pure beryl is clear and transparent, but small amounts of impurities color it very attractively. Aquamarine is a fine, pale green-blue, while emerald is deep green due to Cr ion. Because of its color, emerald is the most expensive gemstone, sometimes more costly than diamond. Since the index of refraction of beryl is only 1.580, not much different from that of glass, it does not have the fire or brilliance of diamond and similar gems. However, it is very hard (only corundum, 9, and diamond, 10) are harder. Morganite, a pink to rose beryl, and Golden Beryl, a golden-yellow gem, are less costly than emerald and aquamarine. Usually, the crystals are hand-picked to separate them from the gangue. In ancient times, precious green gems were called smaragdos. This term was applied not only to emerald, but also to malachite.

Currently, most beryllium (93% of world output in 2000) comes from a bertrandite deposit in Juab County, Utah, in Spor Mountain. Bertrandite is Be4Si2O7(OH)2, an alteration product of beryl. It forms clear or white orthorhombic crystals with one plane of good cleavage, is hard (6-7) and of moderate weight (sp.gr. 3.3-3.5; one source says 2.6). The concentrate is sent to Ohio for processing.

Perhaps the most important beryllium mineral after beryl and bertrandite is chrysoberyl, Be(AlO2)2, which at 8.5 is nearly as hard as corundum. Its crystals are orthorhombic, often occurring in pseudo-hexagonal clusters. When of gem quality, chrysoberyl provides alexandrite, with its amazing dichroism, that makes it red when seen from one direction, green from another, and also cat's eye, with inclusions of rutile (TiO2). Another rare beryllium mineral is euclase, named after its perfect cleavage. Its formula is BeAlSiO4(OH). It is a phyllosilicate (layered, like mica; beryl is a 3D tectosilicate), found in granite pegmatites, often with topaz. Due to its hardness (7.5) and durability, it is also found in placers. It may be clear, green or blue.

Nuclear Properties

The atomic number of Be is only 4, and the only naturally occurring isotope has mass number 9, so the nucleus contains 4 protons and 5 neutrons. The atomic weight is 9.012. The isotope with mass number 8, which might be expected to be quite stable with paired-off protons and neutrons, actually splits with a half-life of less than 4 x 10-16 seconds into two alpha particles, which are even more stable. The decay energy is only 90 keV, however. Be8 is the only light nuclide to undergo alpha decay, but it is a very unusual sort of alpha-decay, that is also fission at the same time. Be7 captures an orbital electron (K-capture) to become Li7, half-life 53 days. Be10 is nearly stable, since its half-life is 2 x 106 years against beta-decay to stable B10. These are the only four beryllium nuclides.

Beryllium played an important role in the discovery of the neutron. The nuclear reactions that occurred when fast alpha-particles collided with light nuclei were extensively studied. The (α,p) [alpha in, proton out] reaction was an example, as in N14(α,p)O17. The reaction with Be9 produced a very penetrating radiation, very unlike a fast proton, that was initially believed to be a gamma ray (photon). However, in 1932 Chadwick showed that it was an uncharged massive particle that could eject protons by collision, which a gamma could never do. The reaction was, in fact, Be9(α,n)C12. This solved the outstanding problem of the constitution of the nucleus, since everything was consistent with an assembly of Z protons and A - Z neutrons, all with half-integral spin.

The thermal neutron absorption cross section of Be9 is only 10 mbarns, a rather small value, so beryllium makes a good neutron moderator in fission reactors. It is lighter than C (9 vs. 12), so a neutron can lose more energy in one collision with beryllium that with carbon. Neutron absorption reactions are Be9(n,α)He6 (winding up as Li6), and Be9(n,2n)Be8 (winding up as 2α). Beryllium is not only a moderator, but also a source of neutrons. Beryllium was considered a promising material for high-temperature nuclear reactors (carbon, of course, cannot be used). Beryllium was used as a neutron reflector to reduce the size of reactor cores. It is used in nuclear weapons for the same purpose.

Metallurgy

Beryllium ores contain no more than 5% Be, because it is so light. The first step is to decompose the beryl, and separate the beryllium. This can be done with hydrofluoric acid or fluorides, producing a soluble fluoberyllate such as BeF2·2KF. Sulphates or chlorides can also be formed. Beryllium can then be precipitated as the hydroxide Be(OH)2, which on heating gives BeO. BeO, beryllia, is a very useful ceramic with a melting point of 2570°C and great resistance to thermal shock.

The metal can be produced by electrolysis at temperatures just below its melting point, or about 1300°C. Unlike most metallic halides, BeCl2 is poorly conducting when fused, so it is usually mixed with NaCl. Barium and sodium fluorides, in which BeO or BeF2 are dissolved, can also be electrolyzed. The metal is obtained in fine flakes or globules, and considerable processing is necessary to remove the slag. BeO can be reduced by carbon, but the product is the carbide, Be2C. Currently, the preferred method is reducing BeF2 by magnesium metal. In general, the metallurgy of beryllium is very difficult.

Beryllium and beryllium oxide in any forms are quite expensive, and this fact limits their use. The current price (2004) for the powder metal is $375 per pound, and for copper master alloy, $160 per pound of Be content.

Properties and Uses

Beryllium crystallizes in the hexagonal close packed structure. It is definitely a metal, but a hard and brittle one. Its electron configuration is 1s22s2, so its compounds can be expected to be electron-poor and somewhat exotic. It is a rather small ion, of radius 0.31Å. Its ionic valence is clearly 2, and this is shown in numerous compounds. The first ionizing potential is 9.28V, greater even than that of magnesium. In the halides, the electron transfer is not by any means complete, and these compounds do not ionize easily. The compounds of beryllium are colorless. Aside from these properties, beryllium behaves similarly to aluminium. It is not much like magnesium, calcium or barium, the other elements called the alkaline earths, except in valence. In fact, it is not very alkaline at all, and its oxide and hydroxide are not even soluble. It is not mentioned in qualtitative analysis texts, since it is encountered very rarely. It probably is separated with the aluminium and must then be distinguished from it by the precipitation of a basic carbonate by adding ammonium carbonate. An excess of reagent dissolves the precipitate. Like aluminum, it forms a protective oxide layer on exposure to air, which makes the surface very hard. Beryllium resists atmospheric corrosion at high temperatures better than titanium or zirconium. Above 600°C, the oxide is first formed, and then the nitride, Be3N2 at 1000°C. Metallic beryllium should not be used at temperatures over 600°C.

The specific gravity is 1.85, only slightly greater than that of magnesium (1.74) and considerably less than that of aluminium (2.7). Its hardness is 6.5, melting point 1285°C, boiling point 2780°C. It would be an exellent light, strong structural material for high temperatures if it were not for its brittleness and extreme difficulty of working. Its electrical resistivity is 18.5 μΩ-cm, a relatively low value, making it useful for electrical leads. The thermal expansion coefficient is 12.3 x 10-6 °C-1, heat capacity 0.425 cal/g/°C and heat conductivity 0.3847 cal/s/cm2/°C/cm. The latent heat of fusion is 341 cal/g.

As a sintered powder (1000°C, 500 psi), the ultimate strength is 45,000 psi, yield point 25,000 psi, Young's modulus 44 x 106 psi, and Poisson's ratio 0.024 (? this seems a very small value). The high Young's modulus and low density make the speed of sound in beryllium quite large (12,500 m/s). The elongation of a tensile specimen on fracture is only around 2%, so the ductility is low. Impact strength is also low. Hot-pressed beryllium can be succesfully machined and drilled. Beryllium can also be vacuum cast, but it is very difficult to machine the castings. Beryllium can be forged hot if encased in steel, and it can be welded, but must be protected from the air.

The alloy 97.75 Cu, 2.25 Be has six times the strength of copper. It is nonsparking (chips do not oxidize readily in air), nonmagnetic, and does not exhibit fatigue failure. Similar alloys may have from 2% to 3% beryllium. This material makes excellent springs, and is a good electrical conductor, since the resistivity of the copper is not raised excessively by the beryllium. Beryllium for alloying is supplied as a 4% alloy with copper, called "master alloy." Since little beryllium is used, its high cost is a minor factor. Be-Al alloys, with up to 65% Be, are also being studied. Phosphor bronze is a substitute for beryllium copper, but is not as serviceable. The Chemical Society's internet periodic table says beryllium is used "to increase the ability to conduct electricity" in copper and nickel, but this is erroneous. Beryllium improves the mechanical properties of the metals, but does not increase the resistivity as much as other alloying elements.

Beryllium and its compounds are very poisonous, especially as dusts. When inhaled, they can produce beryllosis, which is like silicosis, and destroys the lungs. Although some people are little affected, others can develop a sensititivity to beryllium called chronic beryllium disease that scars the lungs. Carcinoma can also result from beryllium poisoning. It is chilling to think that glucinium was named because of the sweet taste of its compounds; its poisonous nature was probably verified at the same time. BeO was used as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, which made broken discarded fluorescent lamps a great hazard. I understand that BeO phosphor is no longer used. This is much more of a hazard than mercury in refuse. Atomic weapons workers are also subject to beryllium poisoning, although great care has been taken to eliminate the hazard. It is easy to blame beryllium for any lung problems that occur with these workers whatever the cause, to the great delight of lawyers. Beryllium copper and similar uses of the metal, or of beryllia, are not hazardous. There is very little beryllium in the environment, and no evidence that trace amounts are dangerous. The EPA limit is 0.01 μg/m3

in air, the OSHA limit 2 μg/m3 for an 8-hour shift. Beryllium dust from burning coal is a negligible hazard, because of the very small amounts involved.

Because of its low atomic number, beryllium is nearly transparent to X-rays and can be used as windows for X-ray tubes. Currently, the greatest demand for beryllium comes from the telecommunications equipment industry.

References

F. X. M. Zippe, Geschichte der Metalle (Wien: Wilhelm Braumüller, 1857). pp. 358-360.

J. L. Bray, Non-Ferrous Production Metallurgy, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley

C. H. Hurlbut, Jr., Dana's Manual of Mineralogy, 16th ed. (New York: John Wiley

W. N. Jones, Jr., Inorganic Chemistry (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1949). pp. 607-609.

S. Glasstone and A. Sesonske, Nuclear Reactor Engineering (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1967). pp. 442-445.

For the latest data on beryllium, see Roskill. For toxicity information, see ATSDR.

Beryllium is a hard, grayish element that does not occur naturally. The element does occur as a chemical component of certain rocks, coal and oil, soil, and volcanic dust. Two kinds of mineral rocks, bertrandite and beryl, are mined commercially for the recovery of beryllium. Very pure gem-quality beryl is better known as either aquamarine (blue or blue-green) or emerald (green). Beryllium is also present in a variety of compounds. They do not have any particular smell. There are two types of beryllium compounds, those that dissolve in water and those that do not.

Most of the beryllium ore that is mined is converted into alloys (mixtures of metals). Most of these alloys are used in making electrical and electronic parts or as construction materials for machinery and molds for plastics. Pure beryllium metal has applications in nuclear weapons and reactors, aircraft and space vehicle structures and instruments, X-ray machines, and mirrors. Beryllium oxide is also made from beryllium ores and is used to make specialty ceramics for electrical and high-technology applications.

Fate

Beryllium enters the air, water, and soil as a result of natural and human activities. Emissions from burning coal and oil increase beryllium levels in air. Beryllium enters waterways from the wearing away of rocks and soil. Most of the man-made beryllium that enters waterways comes when industry dumps waste water and when beryllium dust in the air from industrial activities settles over water. Beryllium, as a chemical component, occurs naturally in soil; however, disposal of coal ash, incinerator ash, and industrial wastes may increase the concentration of beryllium in soil.

In air, beryllium compounds are present mostly as fine dust particles. The dust eventually settles over land and water. Rain and snow aid in the removal of beryllium from air. Sufficiently small beryllium particles may remain airborne for about 10 days.

Most of the beryllium in water settles in the material on the bottom. Beryllium compounds remain in ocean water for a few hundred years before settling to the bottom of the ocean. Fish do not accumulate beryllium from water into their bodies to any great extent. A major portion of beryllium in soil does not dissolve in water but remains bound to soil, so it is not very likely to move deeper into the ground and enter groundwater. In the environment, chemical reactions can change the water-soluble beryllium compounds into insoluble forms. In some cases, water-insoluble beryllium compounds can change to soluble forms. Exposure to water-soluble beryllium compounds in the environment, in general, will pose a greater threat to human health than water-insoluble forms.

Exposure Pathways

You can be exposed to low levels of beryllium by breathing air, eating food, or drinking water that contains beryllium. In the United States, the average concentration of beryllium in air is 0.03 nanograms (ng) (1 ng = 1 billionth of a gram) in a cubic meter (ng/m3) of air. In U.S. cities, the average air concentration is higher, and its value is 0.2 ng/m3 of air. Cities have higher levels of beryllium in the air because beryllium is released from burning coal and fuel oil. Beryllium was not found in 5% of 1,577 drinking water samples obtained throughout the United States. Of these samples, the average beryllium concentration was only 190 ng in a liter (L) of water. Beryllium, as a chemical component, is naturally found in some food. The concentration of beryllium in both raw carrots and field corn grown in the United States is less than 25 micrograms (ug) (1 ug = 1 millionth of a gram) in a kilogram (kg) of the fresh vegetables. The intake of beryllium for most people will be very small.

In certain workplaces you can be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium, mostly in the form of beryllium oxide and beryllium metal. Occupational exposure to beryllium occurs at places where the chemical is mined, processed, and converted into metal, alloys, and other chemicals. Workers engaged in machining metals containing beryllium, in recycling beryllium from scrap alloys, or in using beryllium products may also be exposed to higher levels of beryllium. An estimated 18,000 workers may be exposed to beryllium and beryllium oxide in the workplace.

As a member of the general public, you may be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium if you live near an industry that processes or uses beryllium. People who live near hazardous landfill sites that contain high concentrations of beryllium may also be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium. Beryllium, as a chemical component, occurs naturally in tobaccos and can be inhaled from cigarette smoke. People who smoke may breathe considerably more beryllium than people who do not smoke.

Beryllium metal and metal alloys may be found in consumer products such as electronic devices (e.g., televisions, calculators, and personal computers) and special nonsparking tools.

Metabolism

Beryllium can enter your body if you breathe air, eat food, or drink water containing it. Beryllium will not enter your body from skin contact with the metal unless the skin is scraped or cut and beryllium particles become imbedded in the wound. Only a small amount of beryllium may enter your body if your skin comes into contact with a beryllium salt dissolved in water. When you breathe air containing beryllium, beryllium particles can be deposited in the lungs. The beryllium that you breathe in slowly dissolves in the lungs and moves slowly into the bloodstream. Some of the beryllium deposited in the lungs can be moved to the mouth and then swallowed; the rest can remain in your lungs for a long time. If you eat food or drink water that contains beryllium, less than 1% passes from your stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Therefore, most of the beryllium that you swallow leaves your body through the feces without entering the bloodstream. The small amount of beryllium that moves from the lungs, stomach, and intestines into the bloodstream is carried by the blood to the kidneys. Beryllium leaves the kidneys by the urine. Some beryllium can also be carried by the blood to the liver and bones where it may remain for long periods of time. If you swallow beryllium, beryllium leaves the body in a few days. However, if you inhale beryllium, it may take months to years before your body rids itself of beryllium. This is because it takes a long time before all the beryllium in the lungs enters the bloodstream or is swallowed.

Health Effects

Beryllium is a metal that can be harmful when you breathe it. The effects depend on how much and how long you are exposed to it. When you breathe it in, beryllium can damage your lungs. When you breathe in large amounts of soluble beryllium compounds, the lung damage resembles pneumonia with reddening and swelling of the lungs. This condition is called acute beryllium disease. In this case, if you stop breathing air with beryllium in it, the lung damage may heal. Some people can become sensitive to beryllium. This is known as hypersensitivity or allergy. If you become sensitive (allergic) to beryllium, you will develop an immune or inflammatory reaction to amounts of beryllium that do not cause effects in people who are not sensitive to beryllium. When this occurs, white cells accumulate around the beryllium and form a chronic inflammatory reaction called granulomas (granulomas are not tumors). This condition is called chronic beryllium disease. This disease can occur long after exposure to small amounts of either the soluble or the insoluble forms of beryllium. If you have this disease you may feel weak, tired, and have difficulty breathing.

Although the soluble and insoluble forms of beryllium can cause chronic beryllium disease, workers breathing air containing beryllium at less than 0.002 milligrams (mg) (1 mg = 1 thousandth of a gram of beryllium) in a cubic meter (mg/m3) (a level that government rules permit in the workplace) will probably not develop lung damage as a result of exposure. Both the short-term, pneumonia-like disease and the chronic beryllium disease can be fatal. Long periods of exposure to beryllium have been reported to cause cancer in laboratory animals, but some of these studies are not reliable. Some studies of workers reported an increased risk of lung cancer, but these studies are not conclusive, and new studies are being performed. The Department of Health and Human Services has determined that beryllium and certain beryllium compounds may reasonably be anticipated to be carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has determined that beryllium and beryllium compounds are probably carcinogenic to humans. The EPA has determined that beryllium is a probable human carcinogen. We have no evidence that breathing air, eating food, or drinking water that contains beryllium or having skin contact with beryllium has any effects on reproduction or causes birth defects in humans or animals. Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium can move from the stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut can cause rashes or ulcers. If you have developed an allergy to beryllium and have skin contact with it, you can get granulomas on the skin. These skin granulomas appear as a rash or as nodules. The skin granulomas are formed in the same way that lung granulomas are formed in sensitive people.

Information excerpted from

Toxicological Profile for Beryllium April 1993 Update

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

United States Public Health Service

Beryllium - (Gr. beryllos.' beryl; also called Glucinium or Glucinum, Gr. glykys, sweet), Be; at. wt. 9.012182; at no. 4; m.p. 1287'C; b.p. 2471'C; sp. cyr. 1.948 (20'C): valence 2. Discovered as the oxide by Vauquelin in beryl and in emeralds in 1798. The metal was isolated in 1828 by Wobler and by Bussy independently by the action of potassium on beryllium chloride. Beryllium is found in some 30 mineral species, the most important of which are bertrandite, beryl, chrysoberyl, and phenacite. Aquamarine and emerald are precious forms of beryl. Beryl (3BeO - Al2O3-6SiO2) and bertrandite (4BeO - 2SiO2- H2O) are the most important commercial sources of the element and its compounds. Most of the metal is now prepared by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. Beryllium metal did not become readily available to industry until 1957. The metal, steel gray in color, has many desirable properties. It is one of the lightest of all metals, and has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. Its modulus of elasticity is about one third greater than that of steel. It resists attack by concentrated nitric acid, has excellent thermal conductivity, and is nonmagnetic. It has a high permeability to X-rays, and when bombarded by alpha particles, as from radium or polonium, neutrons are produced in the ratio of about 30 neutrons/million alpha particles. At ordinary temperatures beryllium resists oxidation in air, although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide. Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in producing beryllium copper which is extensively used for springs, electrical contacts, spot-welding electrodes, and nonsparking tools. It has found application as a structural material for high-speed aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and communication satellites. It is being used in the windshield , brake discs, support beams, and other structural components of the space shuttle. Because beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays, ultra-thin Be-foil is finding use in X-ray lithography for reproduction of microminiature integrated circuits. Natural beryllium is made of 9Be and is stable. Eight other radioactive isotopes are known. Beryllium is used in nuclear reactors as a reflector or moderator for it has a low thermal neutron absorption cross section. It is used in gyroscopes, computerparts and instruments where flatness and stiffness, and dimensional stability are required. The oxide has a very high melting point and is also used in nuclear work and ceramic applications. Beryllium and its salts are toxic and should be handled with the greatest of care. Beryllium and its compounds should not be tasted to verify the sweetish nature of beryllium (as did early experimenters). The metal, its alloys, and its salts can be handled safely if certain work codes are observed, but no attempt should be made to work with beryllium before becoming familiar with proper safeguards. Beryllium metal is available at a cost of about $2.50/o, (99.5% pure).

Use SOURCE OF NEUTRONS WHEN BOMBARDED WITH ALPHA PARTICLES, YIELDS ABOUT 30 NEUTRONS PER MILLION ALPHA PARTICLES: HARDENING OF COPPER; MFR OF NONSPARKING ALLOY FOR TOOLS; MFR OF LIGHTWEIGHT ALLOYS /BERYL/ SPACE OPTICS, MISSILE FUEL AND SPACE VEHICLES X-RAY WINDOW COMPONENT OF ALLOYS-EG, WITH COPPER, NEUTRON MODERATOR IN NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Consumption Patterns FABRICATED PRODUCTS FROM ALLOYS

Apparent Color GRAY METAL, CLOSE-PACKED HEXAGONAL STRUCTURE; A GRAYISH-WHITE, HARD LIGHT METAL

Odor Odorless

Boiling Point 2970 Deg C

Melting Point 1287 DEG C

Molecular Weight 9.0121

Density 1.85 at 20 deg C

Sensitivity Data Soluble beryllium salts are directly irritating to skin and mucous membranes.

Chemical and

Physical Properties

HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT PRESSURE: (30 DEG C) 0.437 CAL/G/DEG C; LATENT HEAT OF FUSION: 3.5 KCAL/MOL; BRINELL HARDNESS: 60-125; HAS HIGH PERMEABILITY TO X-RAYS; ANISOTROPIC; CHEMICAL PROPERTIES SIMILAR TO ALUMINUM; METAL RESISTANT TO ATTACK BY ACID DUE TO FORMATION OF A THIN OXIDE FILM. DUCTILITY IS SUFFICIENT AT 1000 DEG C TO PERMIT BERYLLIUM TO BE SWAGED; REACTS WITH OTHER ELEMENTS ONLY AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES: AT 700 DEG C OXIDATION IS NOTICEABLE, AT 1000 DEG C, RAPID

Environmental Impact

The influence of aerosol suspension from clothing on personal monitor exposure estimates was investigated in a beryllium facility. Samples of 100% cotton and 100% Nomex fabrics used at the beryllium facility were tested. The deposition of airborne beryllium into fabrics was significantly enchanced by electrostatic attraction on cotton but not on Nomex fabrics. Both fabrics collected more beryllium in motion than on stationary units. Personal monitors mounted in front of fabrics collected more beryllium when the fabrics were agitated than when monitors were placed in the positions of the nose and mouth. The air concentrations increased as fabric load increased, but leveled off at high fabric load concentrations. Resuspension from cotton was higher than from Nomex. Ressupension of aerosol from garments can cause erroneously high exposure measurements from chest mounted personal monitors. Workshirts worn by employees at a beryllium refinery resuspended beryllium containing dust. The old shirts resuspended significantly higher quantities of beryllium to the air than did the washed and unwashed new shirts. A considerable fraction of the Be measured in air was respirable. Fourteen dental casting alloys were analyzed for release of nickel and beryllium into acidic salivary soln in vitro. Corrosion rates at varying pH levels and time in soln were calc over a 120 day period and the possible significance of these rates to allergic reactions or other health hazards were postulated. When the beryllium levels were analyzed for these alloys they were much higher than expected. In each of the alloys, since the nickel cmpd was often 66-78% of the cmpd and the beryllium level a max of 2%, the differences in magnitude of nickel vs beryllium concn might be expected to be on the order of 30/1 or greater. The differences were closer to 8/1. Nickel and beryllium containing dental casting alloys have the potential to be a significant hazard to the lab technician, dentist and patient.

Environmental Fate

ESTIMATES OF ABUNDANCE IN EARTH'S CRUST VARY FROM 2 TO 10 PPM. NATURAL ISOTOPES: 9 (100%); RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES (MASS NUMBERS): 6-8; 10-12. FOUND IN PHENACITE, CHRYSOBERYL PRECIOUS FORMS OF BERYL: EMERALD, AQUAMARINE. Beryllium is concentrated in silicate minerals relative to sulfides. In common crystalline rocks, the element is enriched in the feldspar minerals relative to ferromagnesium minerals and apparently replace the silicon ion; 85-95% of the total crystal beryllium may be bound in the feldspar structures. The greatest known concentrations of beryllium are found in certain pegmatite bodies, where crystals of beryl account for a few percent of the total pegmatite volume, and may be found in several of the strata of zoned dykes. The element is sometimes concentrated in hydrothermal veins, and some granitic rocks contain sufficient amounts to permit the crystallization of small amounts of beryl. CERTAIN FOSSIL FUELS CONTAIN BERYLLIUM CMPD, ACCOUNTING FOR THE PRESENCE OF BERYLLIUM IN SOME COMMUNITY AIR SAMPLES AND TISSUES OF CITY RESIDENTS. Ceramic artists can be exposed to many hazardous materials, generally related to dry clays, glazes and kiln use. Glazes can contain lead, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, boron, chromium, cobalt, cadmium, copper, vanadium and other materials which all have potential toxic effects. Beryllium enters the environment principally from coal combustion. Be contents in the ashes from a Czechoslovakian power plant were determined (coarse (> 20 mm) and fine (2.0 to 0.2 mm) fraction from dump, and fine (0.2 mm) fraction from electrostatic precipitators). Acidic and alkali aqueous extracts of these ashes contained various concentrations of Be (1 to 17% of total concentrations). Wastewater showned 3.15 and 3.4 ug Be/l. Thus, secondary long term beryllium pollution emerges from the slag and ash dumps. Soil concn generally range from 0.1-40 ppm, with the average around 6 ppm. Beryllium concentrations (dry weight) of 0.08 mg/kg in polished rice, 0.12 mg/kg in toasted bread, 0.17 mg/kg in potatoes, 0.24 mg/kg in tomatoes, and 0.33 mg/kg in head lettuce. Beryllium levels (ppm in ash) for different foodstuffs were: beans, 0.01; cabbage, 0.05; hen eggs (yolk) 0.01; milk, 0.02; mushrooms, 0.12; nuts, 0.01- 0.47; tomatos, 0.02; and baker's yeast, 0.02. In birch, aspen and willow beryllium content may rise as high as 3 mg/kg. Potatoes contain 0.17 mg/kg dry substance, tomatoes 0.24 mg/kg and head lettuce 0.33 mg/kg. Beryllium in root, stem, and leaf tissues of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L Md-609) plants grown in McMurtrey's nutrient solution with addition of 0.3, 1.0 and 3.0 mg/l Be were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis using m/l 246 of beryllium trifluoroacetylacetonate chelates. The method was sensitive to about 4 pg of Be. The majority of Be was associated with tobacco roots (0.3, 1.0 and 3.0 mg/l of Be were added to the solution were associated with 374, 427 and 4280 ug Be/g dry wt of tissue, respectively; leaves were associated with 2.14, 2.36 and 81.4 ug Be/g dry wt tissue respectively. ACCORDING TO STUDIES ON COWS WITH RADIOACTIVE BERYLLIUM, LESS THAN 0.002% OF INJECTED ACTIVITY WAS RECOVERED IN MILK. BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE IN MILK WAS 19 HR. Beryllium level reported in milk, 0.02 ppm in ash. FOOD NOT SIGNIFICANT SOURCE OF HUMAN EXPOSURE NO EVIDENCE THAT BERYLLIUM IS MOVING FROM SOILS INTO FOOD OR FEED PLANTS IN AMOUNTS DETRIMENTAL. Humans: total body burden: 36 ug Beryllium; 24 ug Beryllium in soft tissue. Humans: Kidney; 0.2 ug beryllium/kg: liver; 1.6 ug beryllium/kg: muscle; 0.75 ug beryllium/kg: bone; 3.0 ug beryllium/kg: hair; 6.0-20.0 ug beryllium/kg Human: blood: 0.01 ug beryllium/l Humans: lung: 1x10 2 to 1x10 5 ug beryllium/l: blood: 0.02-3.0 ug beryllium/l: urine: 0.02-3.0 ug beryllium. The soft tissue burden of an adult is likely to be less than 20 ug and the skeletal burden about 30 ug.

Drinking Water

Impact

The authors reported the results of trace metal analysis of 1,577 drinking water samples. Beryllium was detected in 5.4% of the samples and concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 1.22 mg/l with a mean value of 0.19 ug/l. Analysis of surface, ground, and rain waters have shown that beryllium concentrations are well below 1.0 ug/l. It was reported that the maximum beryllium concentration in 20 rain water samples and 56 river water samples (from 5 different Australian rivers) was 0.18 ug/l. Even heavily polluted Rhine and Main rivers in Germany, the concentrations were below 0.02 ug/l. EFFL: BASED ON ENRICHMENTS RELATIVE TO COAL AS A FUNCTION OF FLY ASH PARTICLE SIZE, BERYLLIUM BEHAVIOR WAS BETWEEN A) LITTLE OR NO ENRICHMENT IN THE SMALL PARTICLE FRACTION

Disposal

At the time of review, criteria for land treatment or burial (sanitary landfill) disposal practices are subject to significant revision. Prior to implementing land disposal of waste residue (including waste sludge), consult with environmental regulatory agencies for guidance on acceptable disposal practices. Beryllium (powder) waste should be converted into chemically inert oxides using incineration and particulate collection techniques. Recovery and recycle is an alternative to disposal for beryllium scrap and pickle liquors containing beryllium. PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": There is no universal method of disposal that has been proved satisfactory for all carcinogenic compounds

Atmosphere

URBAN AIR METAL PARTICLE CONCENTRATION IN THE US 1964-1965. POLLUTANT BERYLLIUM; AVERAGE CONCN LESS THAN 0.0005 UG/CU M; MAX CONCN 0.010 UG/CU M. At a beryllium extraction plant in Ohio, concentrations were approximately 2 mg/cu m over a 7 year period. Beryllium was present in 12% of 440 air samples analyzed from 16 cities. Concentrations ranged from 0.001 to 0.002 ug/cu m in urban areas and 0.00013 ug/cu m in more rural areas.

Introduction

Beryllium is not a metal that is often encountered everyday. Although more abundant in the earth's crust than silver, it is more expensive and difficult to produce. The metal itself is very rarely seen, a grey metal formed mainly by powder metallurgy when used as a metal, but more commonly appears as a minor constituent in alloys. Its name comes from the common mineral beryl, which as emerald and aquamarine is an important gemstone, and its chemical symbol is Be. It is also called glucinium, symbol Gl. Glycium and glycinium have been variant spellings.

The oxide was first identified as containing a new element by Haüy (of crystal fame) and Vauquelin in 1797 or 1798 by decomposing beryl. The metal itself was isolated independently by Wöhler and Bussy in 1818, through the reduction of BeCl2 by potassium metal. It was merely a laboratory curiosity until the excellent properties of its alloys with copper were recognized in the 1930's. It was considered a strategic material in World War II because of these alloys.

Mineralogy

Beryllium is a constituent of about 30 identified minerals, but most are rare. The most common beryllium mineral by far is beryl, 3BeO·Al2O3·6SiO2. This is a hard (Mohs 7.5-8.0), relatively light (spgr 2.75-2.80) found in granitic rocks, pegmatites, mica schists and similar environments, occasionally in huge crystals. One crystal was 9 m in length, and weighed 25 tons. Beryl is typically full of inclusions, milky but translucent, and of a greenish color. Clear crystals, which are much smaller but can still be of considerable size, are valuable gemstones. Pure beryl is clear and transparent, but small amounts of impurities color it very attractively. Aquamarine is a fine, pale green-blue, while emerald is deep green due to Cr ion. Because of its color, emerald is the most expensive gemstone, sometimes more costly than diamond. Since the index of refraction of beryl is only 1.580, not much different from that of glass, it does not have the fire or brilliance of diamond and similar gems. However, it is very hard (only corundum, 9, and diamond, 10) are harder. Morganite, a pink to rose beryl, and Golden Beryl, a golden-yellow gem, are less costly than emerald and aquamarine. Usually, the crystals are hand-picked to separate them from the gangue. In ancient times, precious green gems were called smaragdos. This term was applied not only to emerald, but also to malachite.