Table 4. Required respiratory protection.

Table 5. Beryllium emergency response actions.

Figures

Figure 1. Access posting for entrance to beryllium work areas.

Figure 2. Access sign for regulated beryllium work areas.

Figure 3. Label for containers of beryllium or items contaminated with beryllium.

Figure 4. Label for beryllium items.

Figure 5. Label for beryllium articles.

Figure 6. Beryllium storage area sign.

1.0 Introduction

Beryllium metal, alloys, and compounds are widely used at LLNL and other Department of Energy (DOE) facilities because of the materials' nuclear properties as a moderator (i.e., reflector) of neutrons. Favorable mechanical properties have also resulted in beryllium's widespread use in the aerospace industry. Addition of 2% or less beryllium to copper forms an alloy with high strength and hardness--properties that have made the alloy useful in electronics, automotive, defense, and aerospace industries worldwide. Beryllium oxide (also known as beryllia) can be formed into beryllia ceramics, which have an exceptional combination of high thermal conductivity, electrical resistivity, and dielectric properties and which are used widely in electronics, laser, automotive, and defense applications.

Beryllium (atomic number 4) is a naturally occurring element. The commercially important ores are beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18) and bertrandite [Be4Si2O7(OH)2]. The metal is silvery gray, has a low density (1.85 g/cm3) and moderately high melting point (1287°C), and is relatively stable in air. Beryllium is commercially available as a metal [in massive form (i.e., "logs") or as sheets, foils, or powder], alloys (with copper, nickel, or aluminum), beryllia (as a powder or ceramic), or a large variety of other compounds.

Beryllium is naturally occurring in soils at both the LLNL main site and Site 300. The 1994 LLNL Environmental Report (UCRL-50027-94) reported the values shown in Table 1:

Location

Median (µg Be/g)

Range (µg Be/g)

Livermore Valley soils

0.50

0.33--1.2

Livermore Water Reclamation Plant soils

0.64

0.46--0.78

Site 300 soils

1.5

0.68--42

The concentration of naturally occurring beryllium is variable. The average concentration in soil is about 6 parts per million (ppm), with a range of 0.1--42 ppm; humus soils show a concentration above the crustal average. The presence of beryllium in other geological materials shows similar variability: sandstones and limestones have a low concentration (<1 ppm), igneous rocks and shales a higher concentration (about 3 ppm). Beryllium ores may have a substantially higher concentration. For more details, see Wilbur (1980) and Rossman (1991), listed in Section 6.3.

Air samples taken at the LLNL main site and Site 300 perimeters indicate an average of approximately 0.09% of the Bay Area Air Quality Management District guideline of 10,000 pg/m3, as reported in the 1998 LLNL Environmental Report (UCRL-50027-98).

1.1 Goals

Controlling beryllium exposure has been a major interest of the DOE and its predecessor agencies. The first exposure standards were published by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1949 and were later adopted by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). DOE efforts to control and regulate exposure culminated in 10 CFR 850, Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program, published in December 1999. The essential requirement of the rule is to establish a Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program (CBDPP), whose ultimate goal is to eliminate chronic beryllium disease (CBD) from all DOE facilities by:

* Controlling exposures.

* Minimizing the number of workers exposed.

* Minimizing the opportunities for exposure.

Achieving this goal requires assessing operations that may result in exposure, identifying the population at risk, and establishing appropriate engineering, administrative, and personal protective equipment (PPE) controls to minimize the opportunities for exposure. The careful review and minimization of the potential exposures of visitors and other ancillary personnel shall be evaluated by the Responsible Individual. Visitors to beryllium work areas should be discouraged unless essential to the mission in question.

1.2 Applicability

This document applies to all work with "beryllium," which means beryllium metal, as well as beryllium alloys and insoluble beryllium compounds that contain more than 0.1% beryllium. The following are exempt from the requirements of this document:

1. Beryllium articles that meet the definition of an article as defined by 29 CFR 1910.1200, i.e., a manufactured item that is formed to a specific shape or design during manufacture, that has end-use functions that depend in whole or in part on its shape or design during end use, and that does not release beryllium or otherwise result in exposure to airborne concentrations of beryllium under normal conditions of use. Therefore, beryllium articles are those items meeting this definition of an article and whose surface contamination level is determined to be less than 0.2 µg Be/100 cm2.

Invoking the article exemption requires a determination that the item in question cannot release a hazardous amount of beryllium under its intended use. Article status is documented with the label shown in Figure 5. See Section 3.14 for details.

2. Laboratory use of beryllium that meets the definition of laboratory use of hazardous chemicals. See Document 14.1, "LLNL Chemical Safety Management Program," in the Environment, Safety, and Health (ES

3. Appendix B applies only to LLNL employees.

This document applies primarily to beryllium-associated workers, who are defined as:

* Beryllium workers, i.e., workers who are currently assigned to beryllium work areas and are potentially exposed to beryllium.

* Workers whose work history shows past potential exposure.

* Workers receiving medical protection benefits.

* Workers exhibiting signs or symptoms of beryllium exposure.

All other workers who are not exposed to beryllium are subject only to the minimal training requirements specified in Section 3.5.9.

2.0 Hazards

Beryllium is potentially toxic in all forms. However, not all forms present the same level of hazard to workers.

There is a lack of consensus about whether the current exposure standard in 10 CFR 850 (i.e., 2 µg Be/m3) is adequate to protect workers. Although this issue was recognized during the rulemaking process for 10 CFR 850, it was also recognized that the scientific data needed to establish a different limit was lacking. The rule therefore establishes an action level (AL) that is one-tenth of this level, i.e., 0.2 µg Be/m3. Therefore, work place levels shall be maintained below the AL and as low as practical. Visitors to beryllium work areas should be discouraged unless essential to the mission in question.

2.1 Acute Beryllium Disease

Acute beryllium disease is caused by dust or fumes of soluble beryllium salts (such as BeF2 or BeSO4), which are intermediaries in the extraction of beryllium hydroxide and the production of beryllium metal and oxide. This disease occurred almost exclusively among workers in such processes and in the production of phosphors for fluorescent lights in the 1930s and 1940s. Unlike CBD, acute beryllium disease is a chemical pneumonitis whose severity is determined by the magnitude of exposure. Acute beryllium disease is generally reversible.

2.2 Beryllium Sensitization and Chronic Beryllium Disease

Health effects from beryllium are caused by the body's immune system response to inhaled dust or fumes containing beryllium metal, alloys, or compounds. This immune system response to beryllium is similar to an allergic reaction and may evolve over many years, even decades. Early evidence of this reaction may be detected by a blood test [i.e., the beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (Be-LPT)] before there is evidence of damage to the lungs. The Be-LPT is used as a screening test for early evidence that an individual may be at higher risk for beryllium disease based on reaction of the immune system to the metal. Positive test results indicate beryllium sensitization. Sensitization is not a disease. There is no impairment from, or symptoms of, sensitization itself.

The body's reaction may continue to progress and cause damage to the lungs. CBD is said to exist when there is evidence of harmful effects to the lungs, i.e., when healthy lung tissue becomes damaged and changes from functioning lung tissue to fibrotic tissue. Damage to the lungs may be detected early by biopsy before there are symptoms (e.g. shortness of breath). Damage (i.e., fibrosis) may progress to the point that symptoms are severe enough to disable or cause death. In summary, the health effects from beryllium may be clinically silent (i.e., without symptoms) or may progress to substantial impairment or death.

Detection and diagnosis of beryllium health effects are usually a two-step process. First, the Be-LPT is performed to determine whether a worker is sensitized. If the initial test result is confirmed to be positive on a repeat test, the worker is offered further tests, which include bronchoscopy and other medical tests that the examining physician deems necessary to determine whether lung damage or CBD exists.

Not all exposed workers develop sensitization or disease. Research suggests that a small percentage of the population may have a genetic predisposition to CBD. Once a worker becomes sensitized or is diagnosed with CBD, the process is not reversible. There is no cure for CBD. Early diagnosis and treatment of CBD are expected to reduce adverse health effects and improve a person's prognosis.

2.3 Skin and Implantation

Beryllium and its compounds can cause a variety of skin problems depending on the chemical form of beryllium and the type of exposure, as follows:

* Irritant dermatitis--Caused by contact with a soluble compound. Symptoms are inflammation, local edema (i.e., accumulation of excessive amounts of fluids), and transudation of serum (i.e., passage of serum through the skin).

* Allergic contact dermatitis--May occur within 6-15 days of exposure to dust, fumes, or mist. Symptoms include erythema (i.e., inflammatory redness) and varying degrees of edema; lesions may be present.

* Chemical ulcer or ulcerating granuloma--A persistent lesion that results from implantation of a beryllium crystal or metal under the skin. The lesion will not heal until the foreign body (i.e., beryllium) is removed.

A very small number of CBD cases have resulted from skin implantation; the typical effects are those noted above.

2.4 Cancer

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and the International Agency for Research on Cancer classify beryllium and its compounds as confirmed human carcinogens (classifications A1 and Group 1, respectively). These determinations are based on animal studies in which cancers were induced in laboratory animals dosed with beryllium and on human epidemiological studies of workers in beryllium plants that showed a slight increase in lung cancer incidence.

3.0 Controls

All beryllium work shall be controlled to minimize the number of workers and visitors exposed or potentially exposed and the opportunities for exposure. When beryllium needs to be used for an operation, controls shall be implemented in the following order of priority:

* Engineering controls.

* Administrative controls.

* PPE.

3.1 Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program

LLNL's written program to implement the CBDPP [i.e., LLNL Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program (UCRL-AR-144636, Rev. 1.1)], required by 10 CFR 850, has been approved by DOE Oakland. Specific actions are required by the following other ES

* Document 2.2, "Managing ES

* Document 3.3, "Facility Safety Plans and Integration Work Sheets with Safety Plans."

* Document 10.2, "LLNL Health Hazard Communication Program."

* Document 11.1, "Personal Protective Equipment."

* Document 12.2, "Ventilation."

* Document 12.4, "Work Enclosures and Local Exhaust Systems for Toxic and Radioactive Materials."

* Document 12.5, "High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) Filter System Design for LLNL Applications."

* Document 21.2, "Onsite Hazardous Material Packaging and Transportation Safety Manual."

* Document 30.1, "Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention."

* Document 32.1, "Managing Discharges to Water and Land."