Electron binding energies

This table contains electron binding energies for beryllium.
Label Orbital eV [literature reference]
K 1s 111.5 [2]

Notes

All values of electron binding energies are given in eV. The binding energies are quoted relative to the vacuum level for rare gases and H2, N2, O2, F2, and Cl2 molecules; relative to the Fermi level for metals; and relative to the top of the valence band for semiconductors.

I am grateful to Gwyn Williams (Jefferson Laboratory, Virginia, USA) who provided the electron binding energy data. The data are adapted from references 1-3. They are tabulated elsewhere on the WWW (reference 4) and in paper form (reference 5).

References

J. A. Bearden and A. F. Burr, "Reevaluation of X-Ray Atomic Energy Levels," Rev. Mod. Phys., 1967, 39, 125.

J. C. Fuggle and N. Mårtensson, "Core-Level Binding Energies in Metals," J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom., 1980, 21, 275.
Gwyn Williams WWW table of values

D.R. Lide, (Ed.) in Chemical Rubber Company handbook of chemistry and physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 81st edition, 2000.

Table of Different types of electronegativity for beryllium. Use the links in the "Electronegativity" column for definitions, literature sources, and visual representations in many different styles (one of which is shown below). All values are quoted on the Pauling scale.
Electronegativity Value in Pauling units
Pauling electronegativity 1.57
Sanderson electronegativity 1.81
Allred Rochow electronegativity 1.47
Mulliken-Jaffe electronegativity 1.54 (s orbital)
Allen electronegativity 1.576

Beryllium: biological information

Biological role of beryllium:

beryllium has no biological role. In fact, compounds containing beryllium are poisonous.

Levels in humans

Human abundance by weight 0.4 ppb by weight
Human abundance by atoms 0.3 atoms relative to C = 1000000

Hazards and Risks

Hazards and risks associated with beryllium: beryllium metal dust can cause major lung damage and beryllium salts are very toxic. Compounds containing beryllium are very poisonous and only to be handled by a professional under controlled conditions. One route for beryllium into the biosphere is by way of industrial smoke. It seems that some types of camping gas mantle may cause problems as a consequence of their beryllium content.

Beryllium is a highly toxic metal and if exposed to it, at or above the threshold values, it can lead to a chronic beryllium disease (CBD) (i.e. berylliosis) or an acute beryllium disease. Toxic exposure to beryllium is most often thru an inhalation pathway. Beryllium has a variety of effects.

Some beryllium combines with a protein and is deposited in the liver, spleen and kidneys, but the beryllium when bound with a biological protein, a hapten, can result in the chronic form of the disease which is believed to be a delayed hypersensitivity immune response. The major toxicological effects of beryllium are on the respiratory tract,specifically the lungs and their alveoli.

Beryllium and its unique characteristic led to it being used widely in a variety of industries prior to is know toxic effects. Today it is know that beryllium is a highly toxic material which results in devastating toxic effects on the lungs. There has been drastic increases in the regulation in beryllium use so as to protect those that directly handle and work with the metal. With theses regulations, beryllium is fairly safe to work with and use in a variety of products and industries. In the following text, there will be a description of beryllium confusing history and toxic effects on the respiratory system of man.

Beryllium has the symbol Be. In the older chemical literature, beryllium is called glucinium after the Greek word glykys meaning sweet, because of Vauquelin's initial description and observation of Beryllium. Beryllium's atomic number is 4, its atomic weight is 9.01 and in its pure metal form it melts at 1278 degrees Celsius.

The Beryllium element, an alkaline earth metal which belongs to group II of the periodic table, was first discovered in 1798 by L.M. Vauquelin. Vauquelin,a French chemist, was doing work with aluminum and noticed a white powder that was nothing like that of aluminum or any of its derivatives. Vauquelin named this mystery powder, gluinium because of its sweet taste was like that of glucose. In 1828, Wohler, a German metallurgist reduced it to its metallic form and renamed it beryllium.(figure 2)

There was no commercial application of beryllium until 1918 when Cooper patented a beryllium-aluminum alloy, which turn into the 'jump-start', into extending beryllium's application.

Beryllium

Introduction

Contents

Standards
Hazard Recognition
Exposure Evaluation
Possible Solutions
Additional Information
Credits

Beryllium, atomic number 4, is a brittle, steel-gray metal found as a component of coal, oil, certain rock minerals, volcanic dust, and soil.

Elemental beryllium is the second lightest of all metals and is used in a wide variety of applications. In its elemental form beryllium exhibits the unique properties of being light weight and extremely stiff, giving the metal several applications in the aerospace, nuclear, and manufacturing industries.

In addition, beryllium is amazingly versatile as a metal alloy where it is used in dental appliances, golf clubs, non-sparking tools, wheel chairs, and electronic devices.

Exposures to beryllium are addressed in specific standards for general industry.

This section highlights requirements related to beryllium, including OSHA standards, Federal Registers (rules, proposed rules, and notices), the Unified Agenda (a list of actions being taken with regard to OSHA standards) and other agency standards.

Note: Twenty-five states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have OSHA-approved State Plans and have adopted their own standards and enforcement policies. For the most part, these States adopt standards that are identical to Federal OSHA. However, some States have adopted different standards applicable to this topic or may have different enforcement policies.

OSHA
General Industry (29 CFR 1910)
1910 Subpart Z, Toxic and hazardous substances [related topic page]
1910.1000, Air contaminants
Table Z-1, Limits for air contaminants
Table Z-2
1910.1200, Hazard communication [related topic page]

Federal Registers
Occupational Exposure to Beryllium; Request for Information. Notice 67:70707-70712, (2002, November 26). OSHA requests information and comment on issues related to occupational exposure to beryllium, including current employee exposures to beryllium; the relationship between exposure to beryllium and the development of adverse health effects; exposure assessment and monitoring methods; exposure control methods; employee training; medical surveillance for adverse health effects related to beryllium exposure; and other pertinent subjects. The information received in response to this document will assist the Agency in determining an appropriate course of action regarding occupational beryllium exposure.
Search all available Federal Registers.

Unified Agenda
The OSHA Regulatory Agenda contains an entry related to beryllium.

Other Federal
Note: These are not OSHA regulations. However, they do provide guidance from their originating organizations related to worker protection.
Department of Energy (DOE)
10 CFR Part 850 [400 KB PDF, 62 pages]. Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program; Final Rule. (1999, December 8).
10 CFR Part 850 Part II [342 KB PDF, 8 pages]. Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program; Final Rule Amendments. (2006, February 9).
Other Resources
Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program. US Department of Energy (DOE), (1999, December 8). Provides links to DOE policies, guidance, training regarding beryllium and a search feature of DOE resources through the responses to inquiries link.

Hazard Recognition

About 1-15% of all people occupationally-exposed to beryllium in air become sensitive to beryllium and may develop chronic beryllium disease (CBD), an irreversible and sometimes fatal scarring of the lungs [More...] Occupational exposure most often occurs in mining, extraction, and in the processing of alloy metals containing beryllium. The adverse health effects of beryllium exposure are caused by the body's immune system reacting with the metal, resulting in an allergic-type response. The following references aid in recognizing hazards and health effects associated with beryllium.

Public Health Statement for Beryllium. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), (2002, September). Provides exposure risks, exposure limits, and health effects of exposure to beryllium.
ToxFAQs - Beryllium. (2002, September). Answers the most frequently asked health questions about beryllium.
Chronic Beryllium Disease Prevention Program. US Department of Energy (DOE), (1999, December 8). Provides links to DOE policies, guidance, and training regarding beryllium.
Preventing Adverse Health Effects from Exposure to Beryllium on the Job. OSHA Hazard Information Bulletin (HIB), (1999, September 2). Alerts employees working with beryllium about the hazards associated with their work. OSHA has recent information suggesting that the current permissible exposure limit (PEL) for beryllium in the workplace may not be adequate to prevent the occurrence of chronic beryllium disease (CBD) among exposed workers.
Beryllium Associated Workers - Other. Fermilab Environmental Safety and Health (ES&H). References Fermilab's ES&H manual and links to other beryllium related information.
Beryllium. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Safety and Health Topic. Provides links to sources of information on a variety of topics relating to beryllium.
NIOSH Criteria Document for Beryllium. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), (1977, August 19). Testimony to the US Department of Labor (DOL) on the effects of occupational exposure to beryllium and results of studies conducted by NIOSH.

Chronic Beryllium Disease (CBD)
Chronic beryllium disease (CBD) occurs when people inhale beryllium dust or fume and can take anywhere from a few months to 30 years to develop. CBD is caused by an immune system reaction to beryllium metal, with symptoms such as persistent coughing, difficulty breathing upon physical exertion, fatigue, chest and joint pain, weight loss, and fevers.
Middleton, D.C. "Chronic beryllium disease: uncommon disease, less common diagnosis." Environmental Health Perspectives 106.12(1998). Discusses methods to diagnose chronic beryllium disease (CBD).
Newman, L.S., et al. "The Natural History of Beryllium Sensitization and Chronic Beryllium Disease." Environmental Health Perspectives 104.S5(1996). Reviews what was known about the natural history of clinical chronic beryllium disease (CBD) in the era that preceded the use of immunologic markers, review data from recent studies of patients with beryllium sensitization and early disease, and summarize the methodology being used in ongoing longitudinal studies designed to address some of the questions listed above.

Acute Beryllium Disease (ABD)
Acute beryllium disease (ABD) rarely occurs in modern industry due to improved industrial protective measures designed to reduce exposure levels. ABD is caused by breathing in relatively high concentrations of beryllium in dust and metal fumes (>100 µg/m3). High level exposures may lead to death or respiratory illness similar to pneumonia or bronchitis. Symptoms associated with ABD include difficulty breathing, cough, and chest pain. These symptoms occur much more rapidly than those associated with chronic beryllium disease (CBD).
Lang, L. "Beryllium: A Chronic Problem." Environmental Health Perspectives 102.6-7(1994). Reviews the causes of acute beryllium disease (ABD).

Lung Cancer
Beryllium and beryllium compounds are known to be human carcinogens according to the most recent Report on Carcinogens (RoC). US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), Public Health Services, National Toxicology Program (NTP). Provides a table of contents with links to sections of the report.
Beryllium and Beryllium Compounds [147 KB PDF, 3 pages]. Explains the carcinogenicity, properties, use, production, exposure, and regulations regarding beryllium.

Exposure Evaluation

Air, wipe, and bulk sampling techniques are used to measure occupational exposures to beryllium. The following references provide exposure limits and analytical methods used to evaluate beryllium hazards in the workplace.
Beryllium & beryllium compounds (as Be). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (NPG), (1997, June). Offers general information including exposure limits, measurement methods, and respirator recommendations.
Beryllium compounds (as Be). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH), (1996, August). Contains acute toxicity data, NIOSH recommendations, and references.

Beryllium is the chemical element with the symbol Be and atomic number 4.

A bivalent element, beryllium is found naturally only combined with other elements in minerals. Notable gemstones which contain beryllium include beryl (aquamarine, emerald) and chrysoberyl.

The free element is a steel-gray, strong, lightweight brittle alkaline earth metal. It is primarily used as a hardening agent in alloys, notably beryllium copper. Structurally, beryllium's very low density (1.85 times that of water), high melting point (1287 °C), high temperature stability and low coefficient of thermal expansion, make it in many ways an ideal aerospace material, and it has been used in rocket nozzles and is a significant component of planned space telescopes.

Because of its relatively high transparency to X-rays and other ionizing radiation types, beryllium also has a number of uses as filters and windows for radiation and particle physics experiments.

Commercial use of beryllium metal presents technical challenges due to the toxicity (especially by inhalation) of beryllium-containing dusts.

Beryllium produces a direct corrosive effect to tissue, and can cause a chronic life-threatening allergic disease called berylliosis in susceptible persons.

Because it is not synthesized in stars, beryllium is a relatively rare element in both the Earth and the universe.

Introduction

Beryllium is a hard, grayish element that does not occur naturally. The element does occur as a chemical component of certain rocks, coal and oil, soil, and volcanic dust. Two kinds of mineral rocks, bertrandite and beryl, are mined commercially for the recovery of beryllium.

Very pure gem-quality beryl is better known as either aquamarine (blue or blue-green) or emerald (green).

Beryllium is also present in a variety of compounds. They do not have any particular smell. There are two types of beryllium compounds, those that dissolve in water and those that do not.

Most of the beryllium ore that is mined is converted into alloys (mixtures of metals). Most of these alloys are used in making electrical and electronic parts or as construction materials for machinery and molds for plastics. Pure beryllium metal has applications in nuclear weapons and reactors, aircraft and space vehicle structures and instruments, X-ray machines, and mirrors.

Beryllium oxide is also made from beryllium ores and is used to make specialty ceramics for electrical and high-technology applications.

Fate & Transport

Beryllium enters the air, water, and soil as a result of natural and human activities. Emissions from burning coal and oil increase beryllium levels in air. Beryllium enters waterways from the wearing away of rocks and soil.

Most of the man-made beryllium that enters waterways comes when industry dumps waste water and when beryllium dust in the air from industrial activities settles over water. Beryllium, as a chemical component, occurs naturally in soil; however, disposal of coal ash, incinerator ash, and industrial wastes may increase the concentration of beryllium in soil.

In air, beryllium compounds are present mostly as fine dust particles. The dust eventually settles over land and water.

Rain and snow aid in the removal of beryllium from air. Sufficiently small beryllium particles may remain airborne for about 10 days.

Most of the beryllium in water settles in the material on the bottom. Beryllium compounds remain in ocean water for a few hundred years before settling to the bottom of the ocean.

Fish do not accumulate beryllium from water into their bodies to any great extent. A major portion of beryllium in soil does not dissolve in water but remains bound to soil, so it is not very likely to move deeper into the ground and enter groundwater. In the environment, chemical reactions can change the water-soluble beryllium compounds into insoluble forms.

In some cases, water-insoluble beryllium compounds can change to soluble forms. Exposure to water-soluble beryllium compounds in the environment, in general, will pose a greater threat to human health than water-insoluble forms.

Exposure Pathways

You can be exposed to low levels of beryllium by breathing air, eating food, or drinking water that contains beryllium. In the United States, the average concentration of beryllium in air is 0.03 nanograms (ng) (1 ng = 1 billionth of a gram) in a cubic meter (ng/m3) of air. In U.S. cities, the average air concentration is higher, and its value is 0.2 ng/m3 of air. Cities have higher levels of beryllium in the air because beryllium is released from burning coal and fuel oil.

Beryllium was not found in 5% of 1,577 drinking water samples obtained throughout the United States. Of these samples, the average beryllium concentration was only 190 ng in a liter (L) of water. Beryllium, as a chemical component, is naturally found in some food. The concentration of beryllium in both raw carrots and field corn grown in the United States is less than 25 micrograms (ug) (1 ug = 1 millionth of a gram) in a kilogram (kg) of the fresh vegetables.

The intake of beryllium for most people will be very small.

In certain workplaces you can be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium, mostly in the form of beryllium oxide and beryllium metal. Occupational exposure to beryllium occurs at places where the chemical is mined, processed, and converted into metal, alloys, and other chemicals. Workers engaged in machining metals containing beryllium, in recycling beryllium from scrap alloys, or in using beryllium products may also be exposed to higher levels of beryllium. An estimated 18,000 workers may be exposed to beryllium and beryllium oxide in the workplace.

As a member of the general public, you may be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium if you live near an industry that processes or uses beryllium. People who live near hazardous landfill sites that contain high concentrations of beryllium may also be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium. Beryllium, as a chemical component, occurs naturally in tobaccos and can be inhaled from cigarette smoke. People who smoke may breathe considerably more beryllium than people who do not smoke.

Beryllium metal and metal alloys may be found in consumer products such as electronic devices (e.g., televisions, calculators, and personal computers) and special nonsparking tools.

Metabolism

Beryllium can enter your body if you breathe air, eat food, or drink water containing it. Beryllium will not enter your body from skin contact with the metal unless the skin is scraped or cut and beryllium particles become imbedded in the wound. Only a small amount of beryllium may enter your body if your skin comes into contact with a beryllium salt dissolved in water. When you breathe air containing beryllium, beryllium particles can be deposited in the lungs. The beryllium that you breathe in slowly dissolves in the lungs and moves slowly into the bloodstream. Some of the beryllium deposited in the lungs can be moved to the mouth and then swallowed; the rest can remain in your lungs for a long time. If you eat food or drink water that contains beryllium, less than 1% passes from your stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Therefore, most of the beryllium that you swallow leaves your body through the feces without entering the bloodstream. The small amount of beryllium that moves from the lungs, stomach, and intestines into the bloodstream is carried by the blood to the kidneys. Beryllium leaves the kidneys by the urine. Some beryllium can also be carried by the blood to the liver and bones where it may remain for long periods of time. If you swallow beryllium, beryllium leaves the body in a few days. However, if you inhale beryllium, it may take months to years before your body rids itself of beryllium. This is because it takes a long time before all the beryllium in the lungs enters the bloodstream or is swallowed.

Health Effects

Beryllium is a metal that can be harmful when you breathe it. The effects depend on how much and how long you are exposed to it. When you breathe it in, beryllium can damage your lungs. When you breathe in large amounts of soluble beryllium compounds, the lung damage resembles pneumonia with reddening and swelling of the lungs. This condition is called acute beryllium disease. In this case, if you stop breathing air with beryllium in it, the lung damage may heal. Some people can become sensitive to beryllium. This is known as hypersensitivity or allergy. If you become sensitive (allergic) to beryllium, you will develop an immune or inflammatory reaction to amounts of beryllium that do not cause effects in people who are not sensitive to beryllium. When this occurs, white cells accumulate around the beryllium and form a chronic inflammatory reaction called granulomas (granulomas are not tumors). This condition is called chronic beryllium disease. This disease can occur long after exposure to small amounts of either the soluble or the insoluble forms of beryllium. If you have this disease you may feel weak, tired, and have difficulty breathing.

Although the soluble and insoluble forms of beryllium can cause chronic beryllium disease, workers breathing air containing beryllium at less than 0.002 milligrams (mg) (1 mg = 1 thousandth of a gram of beryllium) in a cubic meter (mg/m3) (a level that government rules permit in the workplace) will probably not develop lung damage as a result of exposure. Both the short-term, pneumonia-like disease and the chronic beryllium disease can be fatal. Long periods of exposure to beryllium have been reported to cause cancer in laboratory animals, but some of these studies are not reliable. Some studies of workers reported an increased risk of lung cancer, but these studies are not conclusive, and new studies are being performed. The Department of Health and Human Services has determined that beryllium and certain beryllium compounds may reasonably be anticipated to be carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has determined that beryllium and beryllium compounds are probably carcinogenic to humans. The EPA has determined that beryllium is a probable human carcinogen. We have no evidence that breathing air, eating food, or drinking water that contains beryllium or having skin contact with beryllium has any effects on reproduction or causes birth defects in humans or animals. Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium can move from the stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut can cause rashes or ulcers. If you have developed an allergy to beryllium and have skin contact with it, you can get granulomas on the skin. These skin granulomas appear as a rash or as nodules. The skin granulomas are formed in the same way that lung granulomas are formed in sensitive people.

The intake of beryllium for most people will be very small.

In certain workplaces you can be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium, mostly in the form of beryllium oxide and beryllium metal. Occupational exposure to beryllium occurs at places where the chemical is mined, processed, and converted into metal, alloys, and other chemicals. Workers engaged in machining metals containing beryllium, in recycling beryllium from scrap alloys, or in using beryllium products may also be exposed to higher levels of beryllium. An estimated 18,000 workers may be exposed to beryllium and beryllium oxide in the workplace.

As a member of the general public, you may be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium if you live near an industry that processes or uses beryllium. People who live near hazardous landfill sites that contain high concentrations of beryllium may also be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium. Beryllium, as a chemical component, occurs naturally in tobaccos and can be inhaled from cigarette smoke. People who smoke may breathe considerably more beryllium than people who do not smoke.

Beryllium metal and metal alloys may be found in consumer products such as electronic devices (e.g., televisions, calculators, and personal computers) and special nonsparking tools.

Metabolism

Beryllium can enter your body if you breathe air, eat food, or drink water containing it. Beryllium will not enter your body from skin contact with the metal unless the skin is scraped or cut and beryllium particles become imbedded in the wound. Only a small amount of beryllium may enter your body if your skin comes into contact with a beryllium salt dissolved in water. When you breathe air containing beryllium, beryllium particles can be deposited in the lungs. The beryllium that you breathe in slowly dissolves in the lungs and moves slowly into the bloodstream. Some of the beryllium deposited in the lungs can be moved to the mouth and then swallowed; the rest can remain in your lungs for a long time. If you eat food or drink water that contains beryllium, less than 1% passes from your stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Therefore, most of the beryllium that you swallow leaves your body through the feces without entering the bloodstream. The small amount of beryllium that moves from the lungs, stomach, and intestines into the bloodstream is carried by the blood to the kidneys. Beryllium leaves the kidneys by the urine. Some beryllium can also be carried by the blood to the liver and bones where it may remain for long periods of time. If you swallow beryllium, beryllium leaves the body in a few days. However, if you inhale beryllium, it may take months to years before your body rids itself of beryllium. This is because it takes a long time before all the beryllium in the lungs enters the bloodstream or is swallowed.

Health Effects

Beryllium is a metal that can be harmful when you breathe it. The effects depend on how much and how long you are exposed to it. When you breathe it in, beryllium can damage your lungs. When you breathe in large amounts of soluble beryllium compounds, the lung damage resembles pneumonia with reddening and swelling of the lungs. This condition is called acute beryllium disease. In this case, if you stop breathing air with beryllium in it, the lung damage may heal. Some people can become sensitive to beryllium. This is known as hypersensitivity or allergy. If you become sensitive (allergic) to beryllium, you will develop an immune or inflammatory reaction to amounts of beryllium that do not cause effects in people who are not sensitive to beryllium. When this occurs, white cells accumulate around the beryllium and form a chronic inflammatory reaction called granulomas (granulomas are not tumors). This condition is called chronic beryllium disease. This disease can occur long after exposure to small amounts of either the soluble or the insoluble forms of beryllium. If you have this disease you may feel weak, tired, and have difficulty breathing.

Although the soluble and insoluble forms of beryllium can cause chronic beryllium disease, workers breathing air containing beryllium at less than 0.002 milligrams (mg) (1 mg = 1 thousandth of a gram of beryllium) in a cubic meter (mg/m3) (a level that government rules permit in the workplace) will probably not develop lung damage as a result of exposure. Both the short-term, pneumonia-like disease and the chronic beryllium disease can be fatal. Long periods of exposure to beryllium have been reported to cause cancer in laboratory animals, but some of these studies are not reliable. Some studies of workers reported an increased risk of lung cancer, but these studies are not conclusive, and new studies are being performed. The Department of Health and Human Services has determined that beryllium and certain beryllium compounds may reasonably be anticipated to be carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has determined that beryllium and beryllium compounds are probably carcinogenic to humans. The EPA has determined that beryllium is a probable human carcinogen. We have no evidence that breathing air, eating food, or drinking water that contains beryllium or having skin contact with beryllium has any effects on reproduction or causes birth defects in humans or animals. Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium can move from the stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut can cause rashes or ulcers. If you have developed an allergy to beryllium and have skin contact with it, you can get granulomas on the skin. These skin granulomas appear as a rash or as nodules. The skin granulomas are formed in the same way that lung granulomas are formed in sensitive people.

General:
Name: Beryllium Symbol: Be
Type: Alkali Earth Metal Atomic weight: 9.01218

Density @ 293 K: 1.848 g/cm3 Atomic volume: 4.9 cm3/mol
Discovered: Beryllium was discovered by Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin in 1798. Vauquelin found beryllia (BeO) in emeralds and in the mineral beryl (beryllium aluminum cyclosilicate). Beryllium was first isolated by Friederich Wöhler in 1828. Wöhler reacted potassium with beryllium chloride in a platinum crucible yielding potassium chloride and beryllium.

States
State (s, l, g): solid
Melting point: 1551.2 K (1278 oC) Boiling point: 2742 K (2469 oC)
Energies

Specific heat capacity: 1.82 J g-1 K-1 Heat of atomization: 324 kJ mol-1

Heat of fusion: 7.895 kJ mol-1

Heat of vaporization: 297 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 899.5 kJ mol-1

Heat of vaporization: 297 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy: 899.5 kJ mol-1

2nd ionization energy: 1757.1 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy: 14848.7 kJ mol-1 Electron affinity: 0 kJ mol-1

Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 2,2 Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2
Minimum oxidation number: 0 Maximum oxidation number: 2
Min. common oxidation no.: 0 Max. common oxidation no.: 2
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 1.57 Polarizability volume: 5.6 Å3

Appearance & Characteristics
Structure: hcp: hexagonal close packed Color: steel gray
Hardness: 5.5 mohs

Beryllium is an interesting element because most chemists don't really know about it.

A large beryllium crystal of 99%+ purity.
(Photo: Alchemist-hp)
Harmful effects:

Beryllium and its salts are both toxic and carcinogenic.

Characteristics:

Beryllium has the highest melting point of the light metals, melting at 1278 oC - considerably higher than, for example, Lithium (180 oC) Sodium (98 oC) Magnesium (650 oC) Aluminum (660 oC) or Calcium (839 oC).

On the surface of beryllium a thin layer of the hard oxide BeO forms, protecting the metal from further attack by water or air. As a result of the BeO layer, beryllium does not oxidize in air even at 600oC and it resists corrosion by concentrated nitric acid.

Beryllium also has high thermal conductivity and is nonmagnetic.

Uses:

Unlike most metals, beryllium is virtually transparent to x-rays and hence it is used in radiation windows for x-ray tubes.