The Beryllium Thread - Page 95

Simplex3 · 09:18 PM

I'm putting this in here so that it won't hang around the top of the lounge while I cut and paste information in to post after post.

This is part of my ongoing offseaon attempt to get us ranked on the first page of some search engine(s) when nerds search for "beryllium".

Before you PM me with "Why?", the answer is simply that I am sitting around reading log files at work and cutting and pasting into this thread requires absolutely NO mental stress.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:28 PM

This fact sheet answers the most frequently asked health questions about beryllium. For more information, you may call the ATSDR Information Center at 1-888-422-8737. This fact sheet is one in a series of summaries about hazardous substances and their health effects. This information is important because this substance may harm you. The effects of exposure to any hazardous substance depend on the dose, the duration, how you are exposed, personal traits and habits, and whether other chemicals are present.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:28 PM

People working or living near beryllium industries have the greatest potential for exposure to beryllium. Lung damage has been observed in people exposed to high levels of beryllium in the air. About 1-15% of all people occupationally-exposed to beryllium in air become sensitive to beryllium and may develop chronic beryllium disease (CBD), an irreversible and sometimes fatal scarring of the lungs. CBD may be completely asymptomatic or begin with coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, weakness, and/or fatigue. Beryllium has been found in at least 535 of the 1,613 National Priorities List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:29 PM

Beryllium is a hard, grayish metal naturally found in mineral rocks, coal, soil, and volcanic dust. Beryllium compounds are commercially mined, and the beryllium is purified for use in nuclear weapons and reactors, aircraft and space vehicle structures, instruments, x-ray machines, and mirrors. Beryllium ores are used to make speciality ceramics for electrical and high-technology applications. Beryllium alloys are used in automobiles, computers, sports equipment (golf clubs and bicycle frames), and dental bridges.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:29 PM

The general population is exposed to normally low levels of beryllium in air, food, and water.
People working in industries where beryllium is mined, processed, machined, or converted into metal, alloys, and other chemicals may be exposed to high levels of beryllium. People living near these industries may also be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium in air.
People living near uncontrolled hazardous waste sites may be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium.

Beryllium can be harmful if you breathe it. The effects depend on how much you are exposed to and for how long. If beryllium air levels are high enough (greater than 1000 µg/m3), an acute condition can result. This condition resembles pneumonia and is called acute beryllium disease Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage.Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory reaction in the respiratory system. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.5 µg/m3). This disease can make you feel weak and tired, and can cause difficulty in breathing. It can also result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have any symptoms. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m3).Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause rashes or ulcers.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:29 PM

Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate how much or how recently you were exposed. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples. These tests are not usually available at your doctor's office, but your doctor can send the samples to a laboratory that can perform the tests.Another blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:30 PM

Beryllium is a Group 2 (IIA) element. At ordinary temperatures, beryllium resists oxidation in air. Its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide. Aquamarine and emerald are precious forms of the mineral beryl, [Be3Al2(SiO3)6].

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:32 PM

developed to measure low levels (femtomoles) of beryllium in biological samples. ... macromolecular complexes formed with beryllium at low exposure doses

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:32 PM

Sources, properties, ... Beryllium is found in some 30 mineral species, the most ... now prepared by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:40 PM

and may develop chronic beryllium disease (CBD), an irreversible and ... Beryllium has been found in at least 535 of the 1,613 National Priorities List

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:40 PM

A company in Utah mined bertrandite ore and recovered beryllium hydroxide from ... quoted producer price for beryllium-copper master alloy

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:41 PM

Beryllium is not a metal that is often encountered everyday. Although more abundant in the earth's crust than silver, it is more expensive and difficult to produce. The metal itself is very rarely seen, a grey metal formed mainly by powder metallurgy when used as a metal, but more commonly appears as a minor constituent in alloys. Its name comes from the common mineral beryl, which as emerald and aquamarine is an important gemstone, and its chemical symbol is Be. It is also called glucinium, symbol Gl. Glycium and glycinium have been variant spellings.The oxide was first identified as containing a new element by Haüy (of crystal fame) and Vauquelin in 1797 or 1798 by decomposing beryl. The metal itself was isolated independently by Wöhler and Bussy in 1818, through the reduction of BeCl2 by potassium metal. It was merely a laboratory curiosity until the excellent properties of its alloys with copper were recognized in the 1930's. It was considered a strategic material in World War II because of these alloys.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:41 PM

Beryllium is a constituent of about 30 identified minerals, but most are rare. The most common beryllium mineral by far is beryl, 3BeO·Al2O3·6SiO2. This is a hard (Mohs 7.5-8.0), relatively light (spgr 2.75-2.80) found in granitic rocks, pegmatites, mica schists and similar environments, occasionally in huge crystals. One crystal was 9 m in length, and weighed 25 tons. Beryl is typically full of inclusions, milky but translucent, and of a greenish color. Clear crystals, which are much smaller but can still be of considerable size, are valuable gemstones. Pure beryl is clear and transparent, but small amounts of impurities color it very attractively. Aquamarine is a fine, pale green-blue, while emerald is deep green due to Cr+++ ion. Because of its color, emerald is the most expensive gemstone, sometimes more costly than diamond. Since the index of refraction of beryl is only 1.580, not much different from that of glass, it does not have the fire or brilliance of diamond and similar gems. However, it is very hard (only corundum, 9, and diamond, 10) are harder. Morganite, a pink to rose beryl, and Golden Beryl, a golden-yellow gem, are less costly than emerald and aquamarine. Usually, the crystals are hand-picked to separate them from the gangue. In ancient times, precious green gems were called smaragdos. This term was applied not only to emerald, but also to malachite.Currently, most beryllium (93% of world output in 2000) comes from a bertrandite deposit in Juab County, Utah, in Spor Mountain. Bertrandite is Be4Si2O7(OH)2, an alteration product of beryl. It forms clear or white orthorhombic crystals with one plane of good cleavage, is hard (6-7) and of moderate weight (sp.gr. 3.3-3.5; one source says 2.6). The concentrate is sent to Ohio for processing.Perhaps the most important beryllium mineral after beryl and bertrandite is chrysoberyl, Be(AlO2)2, which at 8.5 is nearly as hard as corundum. Its crystals are orthorhombic, often occurring in pseudo-hexagonal clusters. When of gem quality, chrysoberyl provides alexandrite, with its amazing dichroism, that makes it red when seen from one direction, green from another, and also cat's eye, with inclusions of rutile (TiO2). Another rare beryllium mineral is euclase, named after its perfect cleavage. Its formula is BeAlSiO4(OH). It is a phyllosilicate (layered, like mica; beryl is a 3D tectosilicate), found in granite pegmatites, often with topaz. Due to its hardness (7.5) and durability, it is also found in placers. It may be clear, green or blue.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:42 PM

Beryllium crystallizes in the hexagonal close packed structure. It is definitely a metal, but a hard and brittle one. Its electron configuration is 1s22s2, so its compounds can be expected to be electron-poor and somewhat exotic. It is a rather small ion, of radius 0.31Å. Its ionic valence is clearly +2, and this is shown in numerous compounds. The first ionizing potential is 9.28V, greater even than that of magnesium. In the halides, the electron transfer is not by any means complete, and these compounds do not ionize easily. The compounds of beryllium are colorless. Aside from these properties, beryllium behaves similarly to aluminium. It is not much like magnesium, calcium or barium, the other elements called the alkaline earths, except in valence. In fact, it is not very alkaline at all, and its oxide and hydroxide are not even soluble. It is not mentioned in qualtitative analysis texts, since it is encountered very rarely. It probably is separated with the aluminium and must then be distinguished from it by the precipitation of a basic carbonate by adding ammonium carbonate. An excess of reagent dissolves the precipitate. Like aluminum, it forms a protective oxide layer on exposure to air, which makes the surface very hard. Beryllium resists atmospheric corrosion at high temperatures better than titanium or zirconium. Above 600°C, the oxide is first formed, and then the nitride, Be3N2 at 1000°C. Metallic beryllium should not be used at temperatures over 600°C.The specific gravity is 1.85, only slightly greater than that of magnesium (1.74) and considerably less than that of aluminium (2.7). Its hardness is 6.5, melting point 1285°C, boiling point 2780°C. It would be an exellent light, strong structural material for high temperatures if it were not for its brittleness and extreme difficulty of working. Its electrical resistivity is 18.5 μΩ-cm, a relatively low value, making it useful for electrical leads. The thermal expansion coefficient is 12.3 x 10-6 °C-1, heat capacity 0.425 cal/g/°C and heat conductivity 0.3847 cal/s/cm2/°C/cm. The latent heat of fusion is 341 cal/g.As a sintered powder (1000°C, 500 psi), the ultimate strength is 45,000 psi, yield point 25,000 psi, Young's modulus 44 x 106 psi, and Poisson's ratio 0.024 (? this seems a very small value). The high Young's modulus and low density make the speed of sound in beryllium quite large (12,500 m/s). The elongation of a tensile specimen on fracture is only around 2%, so the ductility is low. Impact strength is also low. Hot-pressed beryllium can be succesfully machined and drilled. Beryllium can also be vacuum cast, but it is very difficult to machine the castings. Beryllium can be forged hot if encased in steel, and it can be welded, but must be protected from the air.The alloy 97.75 Cu, 2.25 Be has six times the strength of copper. It is nonsparking (chips do not oxidize readily in air), nonmagnetic, and does not exhibit fatigue failure. Similar alloys may have from 2% to 3% beryllium. This material makes excellent springs, and is a good electrical conductor, since the resistivity of the copper is not raised excessively by the beryllium. Beryllium for alloying is supplied as a 4% alloy with copper, called "master alloy." Since little beryllium is used, its high cost is a minor factor. Be-Al alloys, with up to 65% Be, are also being studied. Phosphor bronze is a substitute for beryllium copper, but is not as serviceable. The Chemical Society's internet periodic table says beryllium is used "to increase the ability to conduct electricity" in copper and nickel, but this is erroneous. Beryllium improves the mechanical properties of the metals, but does not increase the resistivity as much as other alloying elements.Beryllium and its compounds are very poisonous, especially as dusts. When inhaled, they can produce beryllosis, which is like silicosis, and destroys the lungs. Although some people are little affected, others can develop a sensititivity to beryllium called chronic beryllium disease that scars the lungs. Carcinoma can also result from beryllium poisoning. It is chilling to think that glucinium was named because of the sweet taste of its compounds; its poisonous nature was probably verified at the same time. BeO was used as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, which made broken discarded fluorescent lamps a great hazard. I understand that BeO phosphor is no longer used. This is much more of a hazard than mercury in refuse. Atomic weapons workers are also subject to beryllium poisoning, although great care has been taken to eliminate the hazard. It is easy to blame beryllium for any lung problems that occur with these workers whatever the cause, to the great delight of lawyers. Beryllium copper and similar uses of the metal, or of beryllia, are not hazardous. There is very little beryllium in the environment, and no evidence that trace amounts are dangerous. The EPA limit is 0.01 μg/m3in air, the OSHA limit 2 μg/m3 for an 8-hour shift. Beryllium dust from burning coal is a negligible hazard, because of the very small amounts involved. Because of its low atomic number, beryllium is nearly transparent to X-rays and can be used as windows for X-ray tubes. Currently, the greatest demand for beryllium comes from the telecommunications equipment industry.

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:42 PM

Beryllium - (Gr. beryllos.' beryl; also called Glucinium or Glucinum, Gr. glykys, sweet), Be; at. wt. 9.012182; at no. 4; m.p. 1287'C; b.p. 2471'C; sp. cyr. 1.948 (20'C): valence 2. Discovered as the oxide by Vauquelin in beryl and in emeralds in 1798. The metal was isolated in 1828 by Wobler and by Bussy independently by the action of potassium on beryllium chloride. Beryllium is found in some 30 mineral species, the most important of which are bertrandite, beryl, chrysoberyl, and phenacite. Aquamarine and emerald are precious forms of beryl. Beryl (3BeO - Al2O3-6SiO2) and bertrandite (4BeO - 2SiO2- H2O) are the most important commercial sources of the element and its compounds. Most of the metal is now prepared by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. Beryllium metal did not become readily available to industry until 1957. The metal, steel gray in color, has many desirable properties. It is one of the lightest of all metals, and has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. Its modulus of elasticity is about one third greater than that of steel. It resists attack by concentrated nitric acid, has excellent thermal conductivity, and is nonmagnetic. It has a high permeability to X-rays, and when bombarded by alpha particles, as from radium or polonium, neutrons are produced in the ratio of about 30 neutrons/million alpha particles. At ordinary temperatures beryllium resists oxidation in air, although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide. Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in producing beryllium copper which is extensively used for springs, electrical contacts, spot-welding electrodes, and nonsparking tools. It has found application as a structural material for high-speed aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and communication satellites. It is being used in the windshield , brake discs, support beams, and other structural components of the space shuttle. Because beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays, ultra-thin Be-foil is finding use in X-ray lithography for reproduction of microminiature integrated circuits. Natural beryllium is made of 9Be and is stable. Eight other radioactive isotopes are known. Beryllium is used in nuclear reactors as a reflector or moderator for it has a low thermal neutron absorption cross section. It is used in gyroscopes, computerparts and instruments where flatness and stiffness, and dimensional stability are required. The oxide has a very high melting point and is also used in nuclear work and ceramic applications. Beryllium and its salts are toxic and should be handled with the greatest of care. Beryllium and its compounds should not be tasted to verify the sweetish nature of beryllium (as did early experimenters). The metal, its alloys, and its salts can be handled safely if certain work codes are observed, but no attempt should be made to work with beryllium before becoming familiar with proper safeguards. Beryllium metal is available at a cost of about $2.50/o, (99.5% pure).

crazycoffey · 01-26-2007, 01:43 PM

Beryllium is a naturally occurring, silver-grey metal. Lighter than aluminum and more rigid than steel, Be has many unusual properties which make it ideal for several applications, including aircraft and space vehicle structure, x-ray machine assemblage, mirrors, ceramics, metal alloys, and, since the 1950's, nuclear technology including weapons and reactors. The most significant disadvantage of Be as an industrial material appears to be the toxicity of its dust, fumes, and soluble salts. However, metallic Be has good resistance to alteration or chemical attack and is not easily altered to soluble forms when released to the environment. Most Be in the soils does not dissolve in water and remains bound to the soil particles. An initiator is a device that produces a timed burst of neutrons to initiate a fission chain reaction in a nuclear weapon. Initiators made of polonium-210 and beryllium were located at the center of the fissile cores of early atomic weapons. The highly radioactive isotope of Polonium (Po-210) is a strong alpha emitter. Beryllium will absorb alphas and emit neutrons. This isotope of polonium has a half life of almost 140 days, and a neutron initiator using this material needs to have the polonium, which is generated in a nuclear reactor, to be replaced frequently. To supply the initiation pulse of neutrons at the right time, the polonium and the beryllium need to be kept apart until the appropriate moment and then thoroughly and rapidly mixed by the implosion of the weapon. Beryllium is used as the reflector material (or 'pit liner') in most contemporary American nuclear weapons and thermonuclear primaries. The 'primary', or weapon trigger, consists of three components: the central spherical plutonium 'pit' or core, the Be 'pit liner', and a surrounding high-explosives shaped-charge. The pit liner, sometimes also referred to as the "skull", surrounds the spherical plutonium pit and is in turn surrounded by high explosives. All three of these components together make up a modern nuclear weapon's "primary", or trigger, which initiates the thermonuclear reaction in a weapon's secondary components. The beryllium liner effectively acts as 1) a reflector which directs neutrons back into the plutonium pit; 2) a tamper which initially contains and thereby helps to increase the force of the explosion; and 3) a generator of additional neutrons.2 A flux of neutrons at the beginning of a nuclear weapon's detonation initiates critical mass, which subsequently leads to the weapon's designed destructive yield. The Department of Energy uses beryllium metal to fabricate weapons components and to facilitate a number of weapons-related experiments. Based on its analysis of the President's 2001 Nuclear Posture Review, the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) estimated that it would need approximately 90 tons of beryllium metal to meet mission requirements over the next 30 years. About 50 tons of the material is currently available for purchase from the Defense Department's National Defense Stockpile. Because the only domestic producer of beryllium metal from ore ceased production in 2000, NNSA had been uncertai how it would overcome the perceived shortfall. NNSA's existing beryllium metal weapon component manufacturing process involves machining down large blocks of beryllium metal so that only about four percent of the feed material ends up in the final product. This means that the process results in a discard of 96 percent of the material as scrap. Technical experts explained that this metal could not be reused for weapons production without reprocessing since it contains impurities from the manufacturing process. Near-net shaping, on the other hand, is a process by which beryllium powder is sized to a shape closer to that of the final parts, thereby allowing NNSA to use significantly less beryllium metal to manufacture the same parts. Beryllium Is a Silver-Gray Metallic Element That Occurs Naturally in About 30 Minerals. Beryllium was discovered in 1798, but it was not widely used in industry until the 1940s and 1950s. In industrial applications beryllium can be: used as pure metal mixed with other metals to form alloys processed to salts that dissolve in water processed to form oxides and ceramic materials Beryllium-Containing Minerals Are Found in Rocks, Coal and Oil, Soil, and Volcanic DustFrom these sources, beryllium is emitted into the air and water by natural processes like erosion and by the burning of coal and oil. According to data collected by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the average concentration of airborne beryllium in the United States is very small (0.03 nanogram/cubic meter—a nanogram is one-billionth of a gram).Beryllium used in industry begins as a silicate (BeSiO3) in beryl and bertrandite ores. In a very pure crystalline form, beryl is known to us as gems such as blue-green aquamarine and green emerald.Bertrandite is mined in Utah, but other ores and scrap are imported into the United States, which is the world’s leading producer, processor, and consumer of beryllium products. According to U.S. Geological Survey reports, total US use of all forms of beryllium in 1996 was about 234 metric tons.

01-21-2007, 06:30 PM
Simplex3 MVP Join Date: Sep 2003 Casino cash: $10004900	The Beryllium Thread I'm putting this in here so that it won't hang around the top of the lounge while I cut and paste information in to post after post. This is part of my ongoing offseaon attempt to get us ranked on the first page of some search engine(s) when nerds search for "beryllium". Before you PM me with "Why?", the answer is simply that I am sitting around reading log files at work and cutting and pasting into this thread requires absolutely NO mental stress. Last edited by Dartgod; 04-14-2011 at 09:18 PM..
Posts: 28,527

01-26-2007, 01:28 PM	#1411
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	This fact sheet answers the most frequently asked health questions about beryllium. For more information, you may call the ATSDR Information Center at 1-888-422-8737. This fact sheet is one in a series of summaries about hazardous substances and their health effects. This information is important because this substance may harm you. The effects of exposure to any hazardous substance depend on the dose, the duration, how you are exposed, personal traits and habits, and whether other chemicals are present.
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:28 PM	#1412
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	People working or living near beryllium industries have the greatest potential for exposure to beryllium. Lung damage has been observed in people exposed to high levels of beryllium in the air. About 1-15% of all people occupationally-exposed to beryllium in air become sensitive to beryllium and may develop chronic beryllium disease (CBD), an irreversible and sometimes fatal scarring of the lungs. CBD may be completely asymptomatic or begin with coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, weakness, and/or fatigue. Beryllium has been found in at least 535 of the 1,613 National Priorities List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:29 PM	#1413
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium is a hard, grayish metal naturally found in mineral rocks, coal, soil, and volcanic dust. Beryllium compounds are commercially mined, and the beryllium is purified for use in nuclear weapons and reactors, aircraft and space vehicle structures, instruments, x-ray machines, and mirrors. Beryllium ores are used to make speciality ceramics for electrical and high-technology applications. Beryllium alloys are used in automobiles, computers, sports equipment (golf clubs and bicycle frames), and dental bridges.
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:29 PM	#1414
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	The general population is exposed to normally low levels of beryllium in air, food, and water. People working in industries where beryllium is mined, processed, machined, or converted into metal, alloys, and other chemicals may be exposed to high levels of beryllium. People living near these industries may also be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium in air. People living near uncontrolled hazardous waste sites may be exposed to higher than normal levels of beryllium. Beryllium can be harmful if you breathe it. The effects depend on how much you are exposed to and for how long. If beryllium air levels are high enough (greater than 1000 µg/m3), an acute condition can result. This condition resembles pneumonia and is called acute beryllium disease Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage.Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory reaction in the respiratory system. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.5 µg/m3). This disease can make you feel weak and tired, and can cause difficulty in breathing. It can also result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have any symptoms. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m3).Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause rashes or ulcers.
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:29 PM	#1415
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate how much or how recently you were exposed. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples. These tests are not usually available at your doctor's office, but your doctor can send the samples to a laboratory that can perform the tests.Another blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD.
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:30 PM	#1416
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium is a Group 2 (IIA) element. At ordinary temperatures, beryllium resists oxidation in air. Its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide. Aquamarine and emerald are precious forms of the mineral beryl, [Be3Al2(SiO3)6].
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:32 PM	#1417
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	developed to measure low levels (femtomoles) of beryllium in biological samples. ... macromolecular complexes formed with beryllium at low exposure doses
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:32 PM	#1418
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Sources, properties, ... Beryllium is found in some 30 mineral species, the most ... now prepared by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal.
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:40 PM	#1419
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	and may develop chronic beryllium disease (CBD), an irreversible and ... Beryllium has been found in at least 535 of the 1,613 National Priorities List
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:40 PM	#1420
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	A company in Utah mined bertrandite ore and recovered beryllium hydroxide from ... quoted producer price for beryllium-copper master alloy
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:41 PM	#1421
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium is not a metal that is often encountered everyday. Although more abundant in the earth's crust than silver, it is more expensive and difficult to produce. The metal itself is very rarely seen, a grey metal formed mainly by powder metallurgy when used as a metal, but more commonly appears as a minor constituent in alloys. Its name comes from the common mineral beryl, which as emerald and aquamarine is an important gemstone, and its chemical symbol is Be. It is also called glucinium, symbol Gl. Glycium and glycinium have been variant spellings.The oxide was first identified as containing a new element by Haüy (of crystal fame) and Vauquelin in 1797 or 1798 by decomposing beryl. The metal itself was isolated independently by Wöhler and Bussy in 1818, through the reduction of BeCl2 by potassium metal. It was merely a laboratory curiosity until the excellent properties of its alloys with copper were recognized in the 1930's. It was considered a strategic material in World War II because of these alloys.
Posts: 28,392

01-26-2007, 01:41 PM	#1422
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium is a constituent of about 30 identified minerals, but most are rare. The most common beryllium mineral by far is beryl, 3BeO·Al2O3·6SiO2. This is a hard (Mohs 7.5-8.0), relatively light (spgr 2.75-2.80) found in granitic rocks, pegmatites, mica schists and similar environments, occasionally in huge crystals. One crystal was 9 m in length, and weighed 25 tons. Beryl is typically full of inclusions, milky but translucent, and of a greenish color. Clear crystals, which are much smaller but can still be of considerable size, are valuable gemstones. Pure beryl is clear and transparent, but small amounts of impurities color it very attractively. Aquamarine is a fine, pale green-blue, while emerald is deep green due to Cr+++ ion. Because of its color, emerald is the most expensive gemstone, sometimes more costly than diamond. Since the index of refraction of beryl is only 1.580, not much different from that of glass, it does not have the fire or brilliance of diamond and similar gems. However, it is very hard (only corundum, 9, and diamond, 10) are harder. Morganite, a pink to rose beryl, and Golden Beryl, a golden-yellow gem, are less costly than emerald and aquamarine. Usually, the crystals are hand-picked to separate them from the gangue. In ancient times, precious green gems were called smaragdos. This term was applied not only to emerald, but also to malachite.Currently, most beryllium (93% of world output in 2000) comes from a bertrandite deposit in Juab County, Utah, in Spor Mountain. Bertrandite is Be4Si2O7(OH)2, an alteration product of beryl. It forms clear or white orthorhombic crystals with one plane of good cleavage, is hard (6-7) and of moderate weight (sp.gr. 3.3-3.5; one source says 2.6). The concentrate is sent to Ohio for processing.Perhaps the most important beryllium mineral after beryl and bertrandite is chrysoberyl, Be(AlO2)2, which at 8.5 is nearly as hard as corundum. Its crystals are orthorhombic, often occurring in pseudo-hexagonal clusters. When of gem quality, chrysoberyl provides alexandrite, with its amazing dichroism, that makes it red when seen from one direction, green from another, and also cat's eye, with inclusions of rutile (TiO2). Another rare beryllium mineral is euclase, named after its perfect cleavage. Its formula is BeAlSiO4(OH). It is a phyllosilicate (layered, like mica; beryl is a 3D tectosilicate), found in granite pegmatites, often with topaz. Due to its hardness (7.5) and durability, it is also found in placers. It may be clear, green or blue.
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01-26-2007, 01:42 PM	#1423
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium crystallizes in the hexagonal close packed structure. It is definitely a metal, but a hard and brittle one. Its electron configuration is 1s22s2, so its compounds can be expected to be electron-poor and somewhat exotic. It is a rather small ion, of radius 0.31Å. Its ionic valence is clearly +2, and this is shown in numerous compounds. The first ionizing potential is 9.28V, greater even than that of magnesium. In the halides, the electron transfer is not by any means complete, and these compounds do not ionize easily. The compounds of beryllium are colorless. Aside from these properties, beryllium behaves similarly to aluminium. It is not much like magnesium, calcium or barium, the other elements called the alkaline earths, except in valence. In fact, it is not very alkaline at all, and its oxide and hydroxide are not even soluble. It is not mentioned in qualtitative analysis texts, since it is encountered very rarely. It probably is separated with the aluminium and must then be distinguished from it by the precipitation of a basic carbonate by adding ammonium carbonate. An excess of reagent dissolves the precipitate. Like aluminum, it forms a protective oxide layer on exposure to air, which makes the surface very hard. Beryllium resists atmospheric corrosion at high temperatures better than titanium or zirconium. Above 600°C, the oxide is first formed, and then the nitride, Be3N2 at 1000°C. Metallic beryllium should not be used at temperatures over 600°C.The specific gravity is 1.85, only slightly greater than that of magnesium (1.74) and considerably less than that of aluminium (2.7). Its hardness is 6.5, melting point 1285°C, boiling point 2780°C. It would be an exellent light, strong structural material for high temperatures if it were not for its brittleness and extreme difficulty of working. Its electrical resistivity is 18.5 μΩ-cm, a relatively low value, making it useful for electrical leads. The thermal expansion coefficient is 12.3 x 10-6 °C-1, heat capacity 0.425 cal/g/°C and heat conductivity 0.3847 cal/s/cm2/°C/cm. The latent heat of fusion is 341 cal/g.As a sintered powder (1000°C, 500 psi), the ultimate strength is 45,000 psi, yield point 25,000 psi, Young's modulus 44 x 106 psi, and Poisson's ratio 0.024 (? this seems a very small value). The high Young's modulus and low density make the speed of sound in beryllium quite large (12,500 m/s). The elongation of a tensile specimen on fracture is only around 2%, so the ductility is low. Impact strength is also low. Hot-pressed beryllium can be succesfully machined and drilled. Beryllium can also be vacuum cast, but it is very difficult to machine the castings. Beryllium can be forged hot if encased in steel, and it can be welded, but must be protected from the air.The alloy 97.75 Cu, 2.25 Be has six times the strength of copper. It is nonsparking (chips do not oxidize readily in air), nonmagnetic, and does not exhibit fatigue failure. Similar alloys may have from 2% to 3% beryllium. This material makes excellent springs, and is a good electrical conductor, since the resistivity of the copper is not raised excessively by the beryllium. Beryllium for alloying is supplied as a 4% alloy with copper, called "master alloy." Since little beryllium is used, its high cost is a minor factor. Be-Al alloys, with up to 65% Be, are also being studied. Phosphor bronze is a substitute for beryllium copper, but is not as serviceable. The Chemical Society's internet periodic table says beryllium is used "to increase the ability to conduct electricity" in copper and nickel, but this is erroneous. Beryllium improves the mechanical properties of the metals, but does not increase the resistivity as much as other alloying elements.Beryllium and its compounds are very poisonous, especially as dusts. When inhaled, they can produce beryllosis, which is like silicosis, and destroys the lungs. Although some people are little affected, others can develop a sensititivity to beryllium called chronic beryllium disease that scars the lungs. Carcinoma can also result from beryllium poisoning. It is chilling to think that glucinium was named because of the sweet taste of its compounds; its poisonous nature was probably verified at the same time. BeO was used as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, which made broken discarded fluorescent lamps a great hazard. I understand that BeO phosphor is no longer used. This is much more of a hazard than mercury in refuse. Atomic weapons workers are also subject to beryllium poisoning, although great care has been taken to eliminate the hazard. It is easy to blame beryllium for any lung problems that occur with these workers whatever the cause, to the great delight of lawyers. Beryllium copper and similar uses of the metal, or of beryllia, are not hazardous. There is very little beryllium in the environment, and no evidence that trace amounts are dangerous. The EPA limit is 0.01 μg/m3in air, the OSHA limit 2 μg/m3 for an 8-hour shift. Beryllium dust from burning coal is a negligible hazard, because of the very small amounts involved. Because of its low atomic number, beryllium is nearly transparent to X-rays and can be used as windows for X-ray tubes. Currently, the greatest demand for beryllium comes from the telecommunications equipment industry.
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01-26-2007, 01:42 PM	#1424
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium - (Gr. beryllos.' beryl; also called Glucinium or Glucinum, Gr. glykys, sweet), Be; at. wt. 9.012182; at no. 4; m.p. 1287'C; b.p. 2471'C; sp. cyr. 1.948 (20'C): valence 2. Discovered as the oxide by Vauquelin in beryl and in emeralds in 1798. The metal was isolated in 1828 by Wobler and by Bussy independently by the action of potassium on beryllium chloride. Beryllium is found in some 30 mineral species, the most important of which are bertrandite, beryl, chrysoberyl, and phenacite. Aquamarine and emerald are precious forms of beryl. Beryl (3BeO - Al2O3-6SiO2) and bertrandite (4BeO - 2SiO2- H2O) are the most important commercial sources of the element and its compounds. Most of the metal is now prepared by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. Beryllium metal did not become readily available to industry until 1957. The metal, steel gray in color, has many desirable properties. It is one of the lightest of all metals, and has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. Its modulus of elasticity is about one third greater than that of steel. It resists attack by concentrated nitric acid, has excellent thermal conductivity, and is nonmagnetic. It has a high permeability to X-rays, and when bombarded by alpha particles, as from radium or polonium, neutrons are produced in the ratio of about 30 neutrons/million alpha particles. At ordinary temperatures beryllium resists oxidation in air, although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide. Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in producing beryllium copper which is extensively used for springs, electrical contacts, spot-welding electrodes, and nonsparking tools. It has found application as a structural material for high-speed aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and communication satellites. It is being used in the windshield , brake discs, support beams, and other structural components of the space shuttle. Because beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays, ultra-thin Be-foil is finding use in X-ray lithography for reproduction of microminiature integrated circuits. Natural beryllium is made of 9Be and is stable. Eight other radioactive isotopes are known. Beryllium is used in nuclear reactors as a reflector or moderator for it has a low thermal neutron absorption cross section. It is used in gyroscopes, computerparts and instruments where flatness and stiffness, and dimensional stability are required. The oxide has a very high melting point and is also used in nuclear work and ceramic applications. Beryllium and its salts are toxic and should be handled with the greatest of care. Beryllium and its compounds should not be tasted to verify the sweetish nature of beryllium (as did early experimenters). The metal, its alloys, and its salts can be handled safely if certain work codes are observed, but no attempt should be made to work with beryllium before becoming familiar with proper safeguards. Beryllium metal is available at a cost of about $2.50/o, (99.5% pure).
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01-26-2007, 01:43 PM	#1425
crazycoffey .......... Join Date: Dec 2006 Casino cash: $4167901	Beryllium is a naturally occurring, silver-grey metal. Lighter than aluminum and more rigid than steel, Be has many unusual properties which make it ideal for several applications, including aircraft and space vehicle structure, x-ray machine assemblage, mirrors, ceramics, metal alloys, and, since the 1950's, nuclear technology including weapons and reactors. The most significant disadvantage of Be as an industrial material appears to be the toxicity of its dust, fumes, and soluble salts. However, metallic Be has good resistance to alteration or chemical attack and is not easily altered to soluble forms when released to the environment. Most Be in the soils does not dissolve in water and remains bound to the soil particles. An initiator is a device that produces a timed burst of neutrons to initiate a fission chain reaction in a nuclear weapon. Initiators made of polonium-210 and beryllium were located at the center of the fissile cores of early atomic weapons. The highly radioactive isotope of Polonium (Po-210) is a strong alpha emitter. Beryllium will absorb alphas and emit neutrons. This isotope of polonium has a half life of almost 140 days, and a neutron initiator using this material needs to have the polonium, which is generated in a nuclear reactor, to be replaced frequently. To supply the initiation pulse of neutrons at the right time, the polonium and the beryllium need to be kept apart until the appropriate moment and then thoroughly and rapidly mixed by the implosion of the weapon. Beryllium is used as the reflector material (or 'pit liner') in most contemporary American nuclear weapons and thermonuclear primaries. The 'primary', or weapon trigger, consists of three components: the central spherical plutonium 'pit' or core, the Be 'pit liner', and a surrounding high-explosives shaped-charge. The pit liner, sometimes also referred to as the "skull", surrounds the spherical plutonium pit and is in turn surrounded by high explosives. All three of these components together make up a modern nuclear weapon's "primary", or trigger, which initiates the thermonuclear reaction in a weapon's secondary components. The beryllium liner effectively acts as 1) a reflector which directs neutrons back into the plutonium pit; 2) a tamper which initially contains and thereby helps to increase the force of the explosion; and 3) a generator of additional neutrons.2 A flux of neutrons at the beginning of a nuclear weapon's detonation initiates critical mass, which subsequently leads to the weapon's designed destructive yield. The Department of Energy uses beryllium metal to fabricate weapons components and to facilitate a number of weapons-related experiments. Based on its analysis of the President's 2001 Nuclear Posture Review, the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) estimated that it would need approximately 90 tons of beryllium metal to meet mission requirements over the next 30 years. About 50 tons of the material is currently available for purchase from the Defense Department's National Defense Stockpile. Because the only domestic producer of beryllium metal from ore ceased production in 2000, NNSA had been uncertai how it would overcome the perceived shortfall. NNSA's existing beryllium metal weapon component manufacturing process involves machining down large blocks of beryllium metal so that only about four percent of the feed material ends up in the final product. This means that the process results in a discard of 96 percent of the material as scrap. Technical experts explained that this metal could not be reused for weapons production without reprocessing since it contains impurities from the manufacturing process. Near-net shaping, on the other hand, is a process by which beryllium powder is sized to a shape closer to that of the final parts, thereby allowing NNSA to use significantly less beryllium metal to manufacture the same parts. Beryllium Is a Silver-Gray Metallic Element That Occurs Naturally in About 30 Minerals. Beryllium was discovered in 1798, but it was not widely used in industry until the 1940s and 1950s. In industrial applications beryllium can be: used as pure metal mixed with other metals to form alloys processed to salts that dissolve in water processed to form oxides and ceramic materials Beryllium-Containing Minerals Are Found in Rocks, Coal and Oil, Soil, and Volcanic DustFrom these sources, beryllium is emitted into the air and water by natural processes like erosion and by the burning of coal and oil. According to data collected by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the average concentration of airborne beryllium in the United States is very small (0.03 nanogram/cubic meter—a nanogram is one-billionth of a gram).Beryllium used in industry begins as a silicate (BeSiO3) in beryl and bertrandite ores. In a very pure crystalline form, beryl is known to us as gems such as blue-green aquamarine and green emerald.Bertrandite is mined in Utah, but other ores and scrap are imported into the United States, which is the world’s leading producer, processor, and consumer of beryllium products. According to U.S. Geological Survey reports, total US use of all forms of beryllium in 1996 was about 234 metric tons.
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